感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
患者病情恶化时,哪个预警信号往往最先出现?
A patient has a generalised tonic-clonic seizure in bed. What should the nurse do?
病房暴发诺如病毒感染期间,工作人员在护理患者后应采用哪种手卫生方法?
A nurse asks a colleague to “just glance” at an insulin infusion before starting it. What makes a check truly independent?
在病房发生心脏骤停时,确认患者无反应且没有正常呼吸之后,首先做什么?
Which nursing approach may raise intracranial pressure in a patient with a head injury?
A patient is having a 12-lead ECG. Where are the chest electrodes placed?
An older patient's blood pressure is 142/80 mmHg lying and 116/72 mmHg after standing for three minutes, and they feel dizzy. What does this show?
A patient with chronic kidney disease receives an erythropoiesis-stimulating agent such as epoetin alfa. Which assessments are most important?
手术当晚,一名患者的血红蛋白从 12.5 g/dL 降至 8.1 g/dL(125 降至 81 g/L),心率 118 次/分。最可能的问题是什么?
A patient is starting doxazosin, an alpha-1 blocker. What should the nurse advise about the first dose?
A patient taking warfarin asks for something for a headache. Which drug is usually the safest choice?
对静脉性下肢溃疡进行加压治疗之前,必须做哪项评估?
A patient being treated for infective endocarditis of the mitral valve suddenly develops slurred speech and weakness of the right arm. What is the most likely cause?
为什么在 DKA 静脉输注胰岛素时必须密切监测钾?
A patient with renal colic has normal kidney function and no other contraindications. Which drug is usually the first choice for pain?
为什么在大手术后最初几天,常优先选择规律(定时)镇痛而不是“按需”给药?
During radiotherapy to the chest, a patient develops pain on swallowing and is eating less. What is the most likely cause and nursing focus?
A woman at 18 weeks asks about safe exercise. Which advice is correct?
Which statement by a woman in early labour shows a need for further teaching about pain relief?
What is a normal capillary refill time in a child?
A child with a head injury now has rising blood pressure, a falling heart rate and irregular breathing. What does this indicate?
一名患者每天服用苯二氮䓬类药物已有数月。为什么不能突然停药?
Six weeks after losing his job, a man feels low and worried and is sleeping a little less, but he still enjoys time with his children and does not meet the criteria for major depression. Which diagnosis fits best?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 104.9 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血糖结果为 79 mg/dL。按葡萄糖 1 mmol/L = 18 mg/dL,求以 mmol/L 表示的c。取到一位小数。
某患者体重 18 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 5 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名体重 10 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 125 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 150 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 10 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
医嘱要求在 12 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 450 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 68 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 98 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 10 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 07:45 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 14:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 120 次/分,血压为 79/43 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 28 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 110/66 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 36.9 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.37,PaCO₂ 32 mmHg (4.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 135,Cl⁻ 101,HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L,白蛋白 29 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: B · 呼吸频率升高
呼吸急促是病情恶化最早、最敏感的信号之一,在 NEWS2 等早期预警评分中权重很高。
答案: B · Protect the head, move objects away, time it and do not restrain
During a seizure the nurse keeps the patient safe, notes the time and the features, and never puts anything in the mouth. Afterwards the patient is placed in the recovery position and the airway checked.
答案: C · 用肥皂和水洗手
酒精手消毒剂不能可靠地杀灭诺如病毒,所以应使用肥皂和水洗手,通过机械作用将其清除。同时还应采取接触传播预防和彻底的环境清洁。
答案: D · The second nurse checks the order, drug, dose and pump settings separately without being told the answer
In an independent double check, the second person works through each step on their own, then the two results are compared. Reading the answer aloud or glancing invites confirmation bias.
答案: A · 呼救并开始胸外按压
呼救(骤停团队和除颤器)并立即开始高质量的按压。长时间检查脉搏、延误或测量血压都是浪费时间。如有可能,应事先知道复苏状态。
答案: A · Doing suctioning, turning and bathing all at the same time
Clustering several stimulating activities can cause a sustained rise in intracranial pressure. Spacing care, keeping the neck straight and a calm environment help keep it down.
答案: D · In standard numbered positions across the front and left of the chest
The six chest leads (V1–V6) have standard anatomical positions, from the 4th intercostal space beside the sternum to the mid-axillary line. Wrong placement can change the ECG and lead to misinterpretation.
答案: A · Postural hypotension
A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more (here 26 mmHg) on standing, especially with symptoms, indicates postural hypotension. Causes include medicines, dehydration and autonomic problems.
答案: C · Hemoglobin and blood pressure
Epoetin stimulates red cell production. Hemoglobin is monitored, because raising it too high increases the risk of hypertension, stroke and thrombosis. Blood pressure is monitored, and iron stores are checked, since iron is needed for a good response.核对依据: Erythropoietin Stimulating Agents · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2024)
答案: D · 出血
下降超过 4 g/dL 并伴心率快,提示持续失血。护士应评估伤口和引流管,监测生命体征并紧急上报。静脉液体造成一定程度的稀释很常见,但不会这么多,也不会伴有心动过速。核对依据: Hemoglobin Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: A · Take it at bedtime, because it can cause dizziness and fainting
Alpha-1 blockers dilate blood vessels and can cause marked orthostatic hypotension after the first dose. Taking it at bedtime and rising slowly reduces the risk of falls.
答案: B · Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
NSAIDs and aspirin impair platelet function and can cause GI bleeding, which adds to warfarin's bleeding risk. Paracetamol is usually preferred, though regular high doses can raise the INR.
答案: A · 踝肱压力指数(ABPI)
加压有助于静脉回流,但如果动脉供血不足,可引起组织坏死。ABPI 比较踝部和上臂的收缩压;低于约 0.8(或高于约 1.3,提示血管钙化)的数值在加压前需要专科评估。
答案: C · An embolus from a valve vegetation causing a stroke
Vegetations on the mitral or aortic valve can break off and embolise to the brain, kidneys, spleen or limbs. Sudden focal neurological signs suggest an embolic stroke: the nurse calls for urgent help, checks the blood glucose to exclude hypoglycaemia and expects urgent brain imaging. Thrombolysis is generally avoided in endocarditis because of the bleeding risk.
答案: B · 胰岛素使钾进入细胞,因此血钾可能迅速下降
DKA 患者全身钾严重缺乏,即使最初血清钾正常或偏高。胰岛素使钾转移到细胞内,可引起危险的低钾血症。应经常检测钾,并按医嘱加入液体;如果钾很低,可能要推迟胰岛素,直到开始补钾。
答案: A · An NSAID such as diclofenac
NSAIDs are recommended first line for renal colic in suitable patients because they reduce prostaglandin-driven pain and ureteric spasm. Opioids are added if needed. NSAIDs are avoided in kidney impairment.
答案: D · 它使药物浓度稳定,防止出现剧烈的疼痛高峰
可预测的持续性术后疼痛最好用规律的多模式镇痛来管理(例如对乙酰氨基酚,以及安全时加用 NSAID),爆发痛则按需给药。仍需定期评估疼痛和副作用。
答案: A · Radiation oesophagitis; analgesia, soft food and nutrition support
Radiotherapy to the chest can inflame the oesophagus, causing painful swallowing. Analgesia (sometimes before meals), soft moist food, nutritional supplements, dietitian input and monitoring weight are important.
答案: C · Moderate exercise like walking or swimming is encouraged
Moderate exercise is safe and beneficial for most pregnant women. Contact sports, activities with a high fall risk and scuba diving are avoided, as is lying flat on the back for long periods later in pregnancy.
答案: D · "If I have an epidural, I will not need my blood pressure checked."
Epidurals often cause hypotension, so blood pressure is checked frequently after they are started. Movement, breathing techniques and warm water are effective non-drug measures.
答案: A · 2 seconds or less
A capillary refill time of 2 seconds or less is normal. A longer time suggests poor perfusion, as in dehydration or shock, though a cold environment can also prolong it.
答案: B · A late sign of raised intracranial pressure; an emergency
Hypertension with a widening pulse pressure, bradycardia and irregular respirations is Cushing's triad, a late sign of raised intracranial pressure and possible brain herniation. Immediate emergency treatment is needed.
答案: A · 突然戒断可引起严重焦虑、失眠和惊厥
长期使用苯二氮䓬类药物会导致躯体依赖。突然停药可引起反跳性焦虑、震颤和惊厥,因此应逐渐减量。
答案: C · Adjustment disorder with depressed mood
Adjustment disorder is a distressing reaction to a stressor that starts within 3 months and does not meet the criteria for another disorder, such as major depression. It usually resolves within 6 months after the stressor or its consequences end.
答案: T = 40.5 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 4.4 mmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 22.5 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 2 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: Δ = 8 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: V = 4.1 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 6 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: B = 830 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 150 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 1.52
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
1 或更高:在这个练习病例中是休克的警示信号。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 33–37 mmHg,所以实测 32 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性碱中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: AGc = 21.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.392 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(392 ms)
答案: 二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
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