感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a liquid medicine be measured in a medicine cup?
Which newly started medication most increases an older patient's risk of falling?
A nurse finds a used needle in a patient’s bed linen. What should the nurse do?
A responsive 6-month-old infant is choking and cannot cry or cough. What should the rescuer do?
护士发现一名患者躺在床边的地板上。首要行动是什么?
During surgery under general anesthesia, a patient develops rising end-tidal carbon dioxide, muscle rigidity and a rapidly increasing temperature. Which drug should the nurse anticipate?
A rising serum creatinine most often indicates:
After a head injury, a patient passes very large volumes of dilute urine and the serum sodium is rising. What is most likely?
一名使用肝素输注的患者 aPTT 为 110 秒;方案目标是对照值 30 秒的 1.5–2.5 倍。护士应怎么做?
Ten minutes into a red cell transfusion, a patient develops fever, chills, low back pain and dark urine. After stopping the transfusion, what should the nurse do next?
A patient is starting olanzapine. Which monitoring is most important over the following months?
Before starting long-term bisphosphonate treatment, a patient is advised to have a dental check-up. Why?
植入永久起搏器后,最初几周通常会给予哪项指导?
Hours after surgery to restore blood flow to an ischaemic leg, the patient has severe calf pain that is worse when the toes are moved passively, and the calf feels tense. What should the nurse suspect?
How does bladder training help urge incontinence?
A patient has had a high sodium of 160 mmol/L for several days. Why must it be corrected slowly?
After laparoscopic cholecystectomy, a patient has pain in the right shoulder. What is the most likely cause?
一名已知患前列腺癌的患者报告新发并逐渐加重的背痛和腿部无力。最重要的措施是什么?
A newborn's blood glucose is low but the baby is well and able to feed. What is the usual first step?
A woman has been breastfeeding for 3 weeks. Her baby has gained little weight, feeds briefly and falls asleep at the breast. What is the most appropriate first action?
Which newborn problem may be the first sign of cystic fibrosis?
After surgery for a perforated appendix, why is a child often nursed in a semi-upright position?
哪一组表现提示 5-羟色胺综合征?
一名严重抑郁数周的患者突然变得快乐而平静,并把自己的手表送给另一名患者。最恰当的措施是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次注射的剂量计算得到 10.9584 mL。 本练习的规则是:1 mL 或以上的体积取到最接近的十分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 92 µmol/L。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 mg/dL 表示的c。取到两位小数。
一名体重 23 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 20000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
滴注以 60 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 6 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 50 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 200 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 100 mL。医嘱为 0.05 units/kg/h,患者体重 92 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 6 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 100 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 71 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 07:00 时已输入 750 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 52 kg,身高 173 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 32 mmHg (4.3 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性碱中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 低出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 下降 5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.28,PaCO₂ 22 mmHg (2.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
答案: B · At eye level, reading the lowest point of the curved surface
The cup is placed on a flat surface and read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus. An oral syringe is more accurate for small volumes.
答案: B · A night-time sedative such as a benzodiazepine
Sedatives cause drowsiness, slowed reactions and unsteadiness, especially at night and in older adults. Diuretics and drugs that lower blood pressure also raise falls risk.
答案: B · Pick it up by the hub or with forceps, put it in a sharps container and report it
A loose needle is a hazard to everyone who handles the linen. The nurse disposes of it safely without recapping, using an instrument if needed, and reports the incident so the cause can be addressed.
答案: D · Give back blows and chest thrusts in turn
For infants under one year, the rescuer alternates sets of back blows with chest thrusts, with the head lower than the chest. Abdominal thrusts are not used in infants, and blind finger sweeps can push the object further in.
答案: A · 在移动患者之前,评估其反应性和损伤情况
护士首先检查反应性、呼吸和头部外伤或髋部骨折等损伤。然后才在帮助下安全地移动患者。通知医疗人员,之后再完成报告。
答案: B · Dantrolene
Malignant hyperthermia is a reaction to some anesthetic agents that causes hypermetabolism. The triggering drug is stopped and dantrolene is given, with active cooling and support.
答案: D · Reduced kidney function
Creatinine is a muscle waste product filtered by the kidneys. A rise shows the glomerular filtration rate is falling, as in acute kidney injury.
答案: A · Diabetes insipidus
Cranial diabetes insipidus is a lack of ADH, so the kidneys cannot concentrate urine. Water loss raises sodium; strict fluid balance and replacement are needed.
答案: D · 遵循肝素方案,检查有无出血并通知医疗人员
110 秒远高于约 45–75 秒的目标,因此出血风险很高。护士应遵循肝素方案,评估有无出血并通知医疗人员。鱼精蛋白是肝素的拮抗剂;维生素 K 逆转华法林。核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · Keep the IV open with normal saline using new tubing and call the provider
These signs suggest an acute hemolytic reaction. The transfusion is stopped, the line is kept open with normal saline through new tubing, the provider and blood bank are informed, and the bag, tubing and blood and urine samples are sent for testing as per policy.核对依据: Hemolytic transfusion reaction · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Weight, blood glucose and blood lipids
Olanzapine and several other atypical antipsychotics cause weight gain, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Weight, waist size, glucose and lipids are checked regularly.
答案: B · They are linked to osteonecrosis of the jaw after dental surgery
Osteonecrosis of the jaw is a rare but serious adverse effect, mostly after invasive dental work. Dental problems are treated before starting, and good oral hygiene is maintained.
答案: B · 避免将该侧手臂抬过肩高
在最初几周内限制装置侧的手臂活动,可降低电极导线移位的风险。还应教导患者观察伤口有无感染、随身携带装置卡,并遵循有关磁铁和某些医学扫描的建议。
答案: D · Compartment syndrome from reperfusion swelling
When blood flow returns to ischaemic muscle, swelling can raise pressure in a fascial compartment. Pain out of proportion and pain on passive stretch are early signs; pulses may remain until late. It is reported urgently, as fasciotomy may be needed. The limb is kept at heart level, not raised high.
答案: C · The time between voids is slowly increased
In bladder training, the patient follows a schedule and gradually lengthens the time between voids while using urge-suppression techniques. Over weeks, bladder capacity and control improve. Very low fluid intake makes urine concentrated and irritating.
答案: C · Rapid correction can cause brain swelling
In chronic hypernatraemia, brain cells adapt by holding extra solutes. If the sodium falls too quickly, water rushes into the cells and causes cerebral oedema and seizures. Correction is gradual, with regular sodium checks.
答案: A · Gas used during surgery irritating the diaphragm
Carbon dioxide used to inflate the abdomen irritates the diaphragm, causing referred shoulder-tip pain. It usually settles within a few days; walking and simple analgesia help.
答案: B · 可能为脊髓压迫:上报,按医嘱用类固醇,紧急 MRI
癌症患者出现背痛伴神经症状,提示转移性脊髓压迫。早期诊断(紧急全脊柱 MRI)和治疗(地塞米松、放疗或手术)可保留活动能力和控便功能。就诊过晚往往导致永久性瘫痪。
答案: B · Feed the baby and recheck the glucose
For mild, asymptomatic hypoglycaemia, early feeding and buccal glucose gel are used, with glucose rechecked per protocol. Symptomatic or persistent hypoglycaemia needs IV glucose.
答案: D · Observe a full feed to assess latch and milk transfer
Poor weight gain needs assessment of a full feed, including latch, swallowing and duration, and of the baby's health. Support may include more frequent feeds, breast compression and expressed milk, with medical review.
答案: D · Meconium ileus
In about 10–20% of babies with CF, thick, sticky meconium blocks the small bowel (meconium ileus), causing distension and vomiting. Newborn screening also helps detect CF early.
答案: A · To help infected fluid collect in the pelvis rather than spread upwards
A semi-upright position helps any infected fluid drain towards the pelvis, where an abscess is easier to manage, rather than tracking under the diaphragm. It also eases breathing and coughing after abdominal surgery.
答案: A · 在药物改变后数小时内开始出现激越、出汗、震颤、反射亢进和阵挛
5-羟色胺综合征在使用新的 5-羟色胺能药物、增加剂量或发生药物相互作用后迅速发生。神经肌肉兴奋(反射亢进、阵挛)、自主神经征象和激越是其典型表现。
答案: A · 直接询问他的自杀想法和计划,并告知团队
突然平静和赠送财物可能意味着患者已决定结束自己的生命。护士应直接询问自杀意图、计划和手段,维护安全,并告知团队。
答案: x = 11 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: c = 1.04 mg/dL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 4.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: R = 25 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 360 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 1.3 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 4.6 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.84 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 09:00 输完。
答案: MFS = 75
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 体重过轻
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 20 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 心房颤动
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
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