感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why is hand hygiene still needed after removing gloves?
A healthcare assistant (nursing assistant) has recorded a blood pressure of 82/50 mmHg during routine observations but did not report it. What should the registered nurse do first?
The laboratory calls with a critical lab result by phone. What should the nurse do?
A patient dies after a wrong-drug error, and the hospital carries out a root cause analysis. What is its main focus?
A patient with a valid do-not-resuscitate order (DNR; called DNACPR in the UK) stops breathing and has no pulse. What should the nurse do?
A nurse has a needlestick injury from a used needle. What should the nurse do first?
Which group of symptoms suggests hypothyroidism?
A conscious patient with hypoglycaemia was given fast-acting carbohydrate. On re-check 15 minutes later the blood glucose is 3.6 mmol/L (65 mg/dL). What should the nurse do next?
A patient on carbamazepine becomes confused and has a headache. Which laboratory result would most likely explain this?
一名血小板计数为 35 × 10³/µL 的患者被开具肌内注射。护士应怎么做?
Which adverse effect of doxorubicin requires monitoring of heart function?
静脉给予 500 mg 后,初始血浆浓度为 10 mg/L。表观分布容积是多少?
How can a patient reduce wound pain when coughing after abdominal surgery?
A patient with COPD who is known to retain CO₂ arrives on 15 L/min oxygen. They are now drowsy with SpO₂ 99%. What is the most appropriate action?
Which statement about storing insulin is correct?
Two days after an ileal conduit was formed, the stoma is dark purple and dry. What should the nurse do?
Which presentation fits acute diverticulitis?
A patient's platelet count is 18 × 109/L (18,000/µL). Which order should the nurse question?
在 BUBBLE-HE 的腿部检查中,目前如何评估产妇有无静脉血栓栓塞?
A newborn's bilirubin is rising quickly at 30 hours despite phototherapy, and the baby is lethargic with an arched back and high-pitched cry. What does this suggest?
Which defect classically causes a continuous "machinery" murmur?
A child has a swollen, red eyelid with fever, pain on moving the eye and blurred vision. What should the nurse suspect?
应教导服用双硫仑的患者什么?
An 83-year-old becomes confused and constipated and cannot pass urine. She takes amitriptyline, oxybutynin and an over-the-counter sleep aid with diphenhydramine. What is the most likely cause?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.88601 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1½ tsp,每天两次,共 5 天。按1 tsp = 5 mL,整个疗程需要多少 mLV?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童按 2.5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 1520 微克。安瓿浓度为 4 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 4 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 4 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 4 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 20 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 16 units/kg/h,患者体重 84 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 400 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 9 mL/h 输注。患者体重 86 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 12:15 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 19:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 127 次/分,血压为 145/80 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 93%吸室内空气,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 58 次/分,清醒,体温 37.3 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.22,PaCO₂ 60 mmHg (8.0 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 39 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: C · Gloves can have tiny holes and hands can be contaminated during removal
Gloves reduce, but do not remove, the risk of hand contamination. Hand hygiene is performed after glove removal every time.
答案: C · Assess the patient straight away
A low blood pressure may mean deterioration, so the nurse assesses the patient at once and escalates if needed. Feedback to the assistant and reporting follow afterwards.
答案: D · Write it down, read it back to confirm and report it to the provider promptly
Writing down and reading back critical results confirms they were heard correctly. The nurse then reports them promptly to the responsible provider and documents who was told and when.
答案: B · Finding the system and process weaknesses that allowed the error
A root cause analysis looks beyond the individual to the system factors, such as storage, labeling, staffing or workflow, that allowed the error. The aim is to change the system so the error cannot happen again.
答案: B · Follow the DNR order and do not start CPR
A valid DNR order means CPR is not started. The nurse keeps the patient comfortable, informs the provider and supports the family.
答案: B · Wash the area with soap and water
The wound is washed with soap and water at once. The nurse then reports the injury immediately so the source patient can be tested and post-exposure treatment considered.
答案: C · Tiredness, weight gain and feeling cold
Low thyroid hormone slows metabolism, causing fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin and bradycardia. Weight loss, heat intolerance and tremor suggest hyperthyroidism.
答案: B · Give another dose of fast-acting carbohydrate and recheck
If blood glucose remains below the threshold (4 mmol/L in UK guidance, 70 mg/dL in US guidance), the fast-acting treatment is repeated. Once it is above the threshold, a longer-acting carbohydrate such as a sandwich or the next meal helps prevent recurrence.
答案: C · A low serum sodium
Carbamazepine (and oxcarbazepine) can cause hyponatremia by increasing the effect of ADH, which can cause confusion, headache and seizures. The drug can also cause serious blood disorders, so the CBC is monitored.核对依据: Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023); Carbamazepine · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)
答案: D · 询问开医嘱者是否可以改用其他途径
血小板低时,肌内注射可引起肌肉内出血。护士应要求改用其他途径,如口服或静脉。如果注射不可避免,之后应用力按压而不要按摩。核对依据: Bleeding and Bruising (Thrombocytopenia) and Cancer Treatment · National Cancer Institute (NIH) (2022)
答案: D · Cumulative heart muscle damage leading to heart failure
Anthracyclines such as doxorubicin can damage heart muscle, and the risk increases with cumulative dose. Heart function is assessed before and during treatment; the drug can also turn urine red.
答案: B · 50 L
Vd = 500 mg ÷ 10 mg/L = 50 L。这接近体内总水量,因此药物分布到血浆以外,但没有在组织中大量储存。
答案: C · Hold a pillow firmly against the wound while coughing
Splinting the incision with a pillow or folded towel supports the wound, reduces pain and makes effective coughing easier. Combined with good analgesia and deep breathing, this helps clear secretions and prevents atelectasis and pneumonia.
答案: A · Reduce the oxygen to aim for 88–92% and get a blood gas
In patients at risk of hypercapnic respiratory failure, excess oxygen can raise PaCO₂ and cause drowsiness and acidosis. Oxygen is stepped down to a target of 88–92% (for example via a Venturi mask), not stopped abruptly, which could cause dangerous hypoxaemia. An arterial blood gas guides further treatment, which may include NIV.
答案: B · Unopened insulin goes in the fridge and must never be frozen
Unopened insulin is kept in a fridge at about 2–8 °C. Freezing or heat destroys it, so frozen insulin must be thrown away. In-use pens can usually be kept at room temperature for the time stated by the manufacturer.
答案: B · Report it urgently, because the stoma may be ischaemic
A dusky, purple or black stoma suggests poor blood supply and possible necrosis. It needs urgent surgical review. A healthy stoma is moist and pink to red, and some swelling is normal at first.
答案: A · Left lower abdominal pain, fever and a raised CRP
Diverticulitis usually causes left iliac fossa pain and tenderness with fever, raised inflammatory markers and a change in bowel habit. CT confirms the diagnosis and shows complications such as abscess.
答案: D · An intramuscular injection
IM injections can cause haematomas in severe thrombocytopenia. Rectal procedures, NSAIDs and aspirin are also avoided. The nurse checks with the prescriber and the oral or IV route is used where possible.
答案: B · 观察单侧腿部有无肿胀、发热、发红和压痛
Homans 征不可靠,已不再推荐。应评估单侧肿胀、发热、发红和疼痛,并立即上报呼吸困难或胸痛。按摩小腿可能使血栓脱落。
答案: B · Acute bilirubin encephalopathy
Lethargy, poor feeding, hypertonia with arching and a high-pitched cry are signs of acute bilirubin encephalopathy. An urgent exchange transfusion may be needed to prevent permanent kernicterus.
答案: D · Patent ductus arteriosus
In a patent ductus arteriosus, blood flows from the aorta to the pulmonary artery throughout the cardiac cycle because aortic pressure is always higher. This produces a continuous, machinery-like murmur.
答案: D · Orbital cellulitis, which needs urgent review and IV antibiotics
Painful eye movements, reduced vision or proptosis with eyelid swelling suggest orbital cellulitis, which can spread to the brain. The child needs urgent assessment, imaging if indicated and IV antibiotics.
答案: A · 避免一切酒精,包括某些漱口水和酱汁等隐蔽来源
双硫仑阻断乙醛的分解,因此饮酒会引起面部潮红、恶心、呕吐、心悸和低血压。患者必须避免任何形式的酒精。
答案: D · The combined anticholinergic effects of her medicines
Several drugs with anticholinergic effects add up, increasing the risk of delirium, constipation and urinary retention in older adults. A medicine review aims to reduce the total anticholinergic burden.
答案: x = 0.89 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 75 mL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 5 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.38 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 16 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:16 滴/分。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 33.6 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 2.8 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1690 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 125 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 0.88
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
高于通常的 0.5–0.7。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 48.3 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QTc = 0.443 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(443 ms)
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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