感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
患者侧卧时,推荐哪种体位以减轻骶尾部和髋部的压力?
A nurse develops vomiting and diarrhoea during a norovirus outbreak. When can they usually return to work (UK guidance)?
A nurse has been fit-tested for an N95 respirator. What should the nurse do each time it is put on?
A nurse teaches a patient who has had a splenectomy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
One hour after a vaginal birth, the nurse finds a soft, boggy uterus and heavy bleeding. What is the first action?
A marathon runner is confused, with a temperature of 41 °C and hot skin. What is the priority?
What should the nurse regularly check for a patient with a syringe driver?
Why must severe chronic hyponatraemia be corrected slowly?
A patient had a right mastectomy with removal of axillary lymph nodes. Where is the best place to draw blood?
A patient on warfarin with an INR of 3.6 fell and hit their head an hour ago. They now report a worsening headache and drowsiness. What is the priority?
Why is hypovolaemia corrected with IV fluids before or while starting a vasopressor?
A child has a tonic–clonic seizure lasting more than 5 minutes at home and has no IV access. Which drug can be given first by a trained carer or paramedic?
A patient has pneumonia in the right lung only. In which side-lying position will oxygenation usually be best?
A patient with infective endocarditis is on IV gentamicin with another antibiotic. Which monitoring is most important?
Why is good blood pressure control important in chronic kidney disease?
A patient with an insulin pump is admitted with nausea, a glucose of 19 mmol/L (342 mg/dL) and blood ketones of 3.1 mmol/L. What is the priority?
Which change suggests that a burn wound is becoming infected?
A patient on warfarin has a major upper GI bleed with an INR of 5. Which treatment should the nurse anticipate to reverse the warfarin?
A newborn has a cleft lip and palate. Which feeding approach is most appropriate?
A woman at 30 weeks is in a minor car accident. She feels fine and has no bleeding. What should the nurse advise?
Which finding is an early sign of shock in a child?
一名 6 岁的血友病患儿摔倒后膝盖肿胀疼痛。优先事项是什么?
The wife of a man with alcohol dependence organises her life around his drinking, hides it from others and neglects her own needs. What does this pattern suggest?
On a mental health ward, which task is most appropriate for the nurse to delegate to a healthcare assistant?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 5 ft 0 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1½ 杯 / 茶, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 18 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 255 微克。安瓿浓度为 0.5 mg/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 30 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
将 200 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 100 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 12 500 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 14 units/kg/h,患者体重 83 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 24 mL/h 输注。患者体重 99 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 95 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 06:00 时已输入 250 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 卧床不起; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 129 kg,身高 161 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 6 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.14,PaCO₂ 43 mmHg (5.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。从一组的第一个搏动到第二个搏动,PR 间期增加了多少(ΔPR),以秒为单位?
答案: A · 用枕头支撑的 30 度侧倾卧位
30 度侧倾卧位使体重分散,避开骶骨和股骨大转子。大幅抬高床头会增加下滑和对骶尾部的剪切力。
答案: D · 48 hours after the symptoms have stopped
People can still shed norovirus after symptoms settle, so staff usually stay off work until 48 hours symptom-free. This helps stop outbreaks spreading on wards.
答案: A · Perform a user seal check
A fit test confirms that a model and size suit the person. A user seal check, breathing in and out to feel for leaks at the edges, is done every time the respirator is put on.
答案: C · “Now that my spleen is out, a fever is nothing to worry about.”
People without a spleen are at risk of overwhelming infection, especially from encapsulated bacteria. Fever needs prompt medical assessment, and vaccines are kept up to date.
答案: C · Massage the fundus
Uterine atony is the most common cause of postpartum hemorrhage. Fundal massage helps the uterus contract; the nurse then calls for help and gives prescribed uterotonics if bleeding continues.
答案: D · Rapid cooling while supporting airway and circulation
Heat stroke is an emergency in which body temperature rises and the brain is affected. Rapid cooling, for example with cold water or ice, is the priority; antipyretics do not work for heat stroke.
答案: C · The infusion site, the rate and volume remaining, and the patient's symptoms
Nurses check that the infusion is running as planned, the site has no redness or swelling, and the symptoms are controlled. Problems are acted on quickly to avoid distress.
答案: B · Too-rapid correction can cause osmotic demyelination in the brain
In chronic hyponatraemia brain cells adapt to the low tonicity. A rapid rise in sodium draws water out too fast and can cause osmotic demyelination, so the correction rate is limited and sodium is checked often.
答案: C · The left arm
After axillary node removal, venipuncture and blood pressure readings are usually avoided on that side to reduce the risk of lymphedema and infection. The opposite arm is used whenever possible, according to policy.
答案: D · Report urgently for imaging and possible reversal
A head injury in an anticoagulated patient, with worsening headache and drowsiness, suggests intracranial bleeding. The provider is told at once, neurological checks are done often, urgent imaging is arranged, and warfarin reversal (vitamin K and a prothrombin complex concentrate) may be prescribed.核对依据: Taking warfarin (Coumadin, Jantoven) - what to ask your doctor · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · Vasopressors cannot keep perfusion up if the circulation is under-filled
Vasoconstriction without adequate volume reduces organ blood flow and can cause ischaemia. Fluid resuscitation restores preload, and vasopressors are then used for persistent hypotension.
答案: D · Buccal or intranasal midazolam
Without IV access, buccal or intranasal midazolam, or rectal diazepam, is used to stop a prolonged seizure. Nothing is put into the mouth to swallow during a seizure.
答案: B · Lying on the left side, with the healthy lung down
Blood flow goes preferentially to the dependent lung. Placing the healthy lung down matches more blood to the well-ventilated lung, improving oxygenation ("good lung down"). Exceptions include a lung abscess or bleeding, when the affected lung is placed down to protect the healthy one.
答案: B · Drug levels, renal function and hearing or balance changes
Gentamicin is nephrotoxic and ototoxic. Levels are measured to guide dosing, renal function is checked regularly and patients are asked about tinnitus, hearing loss and dizziness. Risk is greater with loop diuretics, older age and longer courses.
答案: C · It slows the decline in kidney function
Hypertension is both a cause and a result of CKD. Controlling it, often with an ACE inhibitor or ARB when albuminuria is present, slows the loss of kidney function and reduces cardiovascular risk.
答案: D · Suspect failed insulin delivery and give insulin by another route
Rising ketones in a pump user suggest that insulin delivery has failed, for example from a kinked cannula or an empty reservoir. Insulin must be given by pen or IV, and DKA treatment started if criteria are met. The site and pump are checked.
答案: D · A partial-thickness burn becoming deeper, with new discolouration
Signs of burn wound infection include conversion to a deeper burn, new dark or green discolouration, increasing pain, offensive exudate, spreading redness and systemic signs such as fever or tachycardia.
答案: B · Prothrombin complex concentrate with IV vitamin K
Major bleeding on warfarin is treated by stopping it and giving prothrombin complex concentrate for rapid reversal with IV vitamin K for a lasting effect. Protamine reverses heparin, not warfarin.
答案: C · Special teats and an upright position
Babies with a cleft palate often need specialised bottles or teats, an upright feeding position, frequent burping and support from a cleft team. Some babies with a cleft lip only can breastfeed.
答案: D · Come in for fetal monitoring even without symptoms
Even minor trauma can cause placental abruption, sometimes without bleeding. Pregnant women after trauma are usually monitored with CTG for several hours. Rh-negative women may need anti-D.
答案: B · A fast heart rate with a prolonged capillary refill
Children maintain their blood pressure until late in shock. Early signs include tachycardia, prolonged capillary refill, cool peripheries, reduced urine output and changes in behaviour.
答案: C · 按处方补充凝血因子,并对关节休息、冰敷、加压和抬高
早期补充凝血因子可止住出血。休息、冷敷、轻度加压和抬高可减轻肿胀。阿司匹林和热敷会增加出血。反复的关节出血会损害关节。
答案: B · Codependency
Codependency describes a family member whose life becomes centred on the other person's addiction, often with caretaking, covering up and neglect of self. Support groups such as Al-Anon can help.
答案: B · Accompanying a stable patient to the dining room and recording his food intake
Routine, predictable tasks with stable patients, such as escorting and recording intake, can be delegated. Assessment, care planning, teaching and evaluation require the nurse's judgement.
答案: h = 152 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 380 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 3.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.51 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 10 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 50 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 23.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 1.47 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 11:00 输完。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: PaCO₂ = 17 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 窦性心律伴室性早搏
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: ΔPR = 0.14 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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