感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How can a patient reduce pain when coughing after abdominal surgery?
A patient spills hot tea on their forearm. What is the best immediate first aid?
为什么即使换用新针头,胰岛素笔也绝不能用于多名患者?
A patient sitting in a chair starts to have a generalized seizure. What should the nurse do?
A patient on hemodialysis has an arteriovenous fistula in the left arm. Which instruction should the nurse give the nursing assistant?
A patient receiving comfort-focused end-of-life care is distressed by breathlessness. Which approach is most appropriate?
一名 MRSA 定植患者入院。哪种防护措施是恰当的?
After a high spinal cord injury, a patient has low blood pressure with a slow heart rate and warm, dry skin. What is most likely?
A patient has had severe watery diarrhea for 4 days. Which laboratory pattern would the nurse expect?
Three days after starting haloperidol, a patient has a temperature of 40 °C, severe muscle rigidity and confusion. Which laboratory result would the nurse expect?
Which adverse effect of doxorubicin requires monitoring of heart function?
A patient on stable warfarin is prescribed a course of metronidazole. What is the likely effect, and what should the nurse expect?
一名外周动脉疾病患者夜间腿痛。哪种体位可能缓解疼痛?
A healthcare assistant (unlicensed assistive personnel) reports four observations. Which one needs the nurse's attention first?
What does a positive pronator drift test show?
A patient had a witnessed tonic-clonic seizure. Afterwards their left arm is weak, and the weakness improves over the next few hours. What is the best interpretation?
Which advice may help reduce the risk of a parastomal hernia after stoma surgery?
A patient with cirrhosis takes spironolactone and furosemide. Which blood result should the nurse report before the next dose?
How does a port-wine stain differ from a "stork bite" (salmon patch)?
A woman at 29 weeks is in preterm labour and is given magnesium sulfate. What is the main reason for giving it at this gestation?
What should the nurse do before giving a dose of digoxin to an infant?
An 18-month-old with gastroenteritis has a heart rate of 170/min, a capillary refill time of 4 seconds and cool hands and feet. Her blood pressure is normal. What does this indicate?
对服用锂盐的患者,应给予哪些关于盐和液体的建议?
一名已知有惊恐障碍的患者说她胸痛并呼吸困难。护士应首先做什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 5 ft 4 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 219 µmol/L。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 mg/dL 表示的c。取到两位小数。
一名体重 21 kg 的儿童按 4 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 10 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 390 单位的药物,药液规格为 1000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 8 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
将 100 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 20 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 100 单位普通胰岛素、容量 100 mL 的输液以 5 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 2.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 71 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时已输入 600 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 92 次/分,清醒,体温 35.8 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 112/68 mmHg,脉搏 140 次/分,清醒,体温 37.9 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 22 mmHg (2.9 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性碱中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 低出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 下降 2 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
练习数值:Na⁺ 136,Cl⁻ 112,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L,白蛋白 34 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
答案: B · Hold a pillow firmly against the wound while coughing
Splinting the incision with a pillow or folded towel supports the wound and reduces pain, so the patient can cough effectively and clear secretions.
答案: D · Cool the burn under cool running water for about 20 minutes
Cool running water for about 20 minutes reduces pain and depth of injury. Ice can damage tissue further, grease holds heat in, and blisters are left intact to protect the skin.
答案: C · 血液可能倒流进药筒并传播感染
血液和皮肤细胞可能被吸回药筒,所以共用笔可传播血源性感染。每支笔都标明仅供一名患者使用。
答案: C · Ease the patient to the floor, protect the head and turn them on their side
The nurse guides the patient gently to the floor, cushions the head, moves objects away and turns the patient on their side to protect the airway. The nurse stays, times the seizure and calls for help.
答案: A · Do not measure blood pressure on the left arm
Blood pressure cuffs, tight bands and heavy loads can damage or block a fistula. The arm with the access is protected, and the nurse checks it for a thrill and bruit.
答案: B · Give prescribed opioids and use positioning and a fan to relieve breathlessness
In palliative care, opioids are used to relieve breathlessness, along with positioning, a fan and calm reassurance. The aim is comfort, not more investigations.
答案: D · 接触防护:手套、围裙以及良好的手卫生
MRSA 主要通过直接和间接接触传播,因此接触防护、尽可能隔离以及严格的手卫生可以限制传播。
答案: B · Neurogenic shock
Neurogenic shock from cervical or high thoracic injury causes vasodilation and bradycardia because sympathetic outflow is lost. Hypovolaemic shock usually causes tachycardia and cool, pale skin.
答案: A · Low potassium and low bicarbonate
Lower gut fluid contains potassium and bicarbonate, so severe diarrhea causes hypokalemia and a normal anion gap (hyperchloremic) metabolic acidosis, plus dehydration. Vomiting, in contrast, causes metabolic alkalosis.核对依据: Potassium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Metabolic acidosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · A very high creatine kinase (CK)
These signs suggest neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a medical emergency. Muscle rigidity releases CK, often to very high levels, and the white count is often raised. Myoglobin can damage the kidneys. The antipsychotic is stopped and supportive care is started.
答案: D · Cumulative heart muscle damage leading to heart failure
Anthracyclines such as doxorubicin can damage heart muscle, and the risk increases with cumulative dose. Heart function is assessed before and during treatment; the drug can also turn urine red.
答案: A · The INR rises, so closer INR monitoring is needed
Metronidazole inhibits the metabolism of warfarin (mainly via CYP2C9), so warfarin levels and the INR rise. The bleeding risk increases, and the INR is checked more often during and after the course.
答案: C · 双腿垂在床边
缺血性静息痛常通过放低双腿而缓解,因为重力可改善动脉血流。抬高会加重缺血。明显动脉疾病禁用加压,直接热敷可烫伤感觉迟钝的缺血皮肤。
答案: C · A patient with heart failure who is newly confused, with SpO₂ 89%
New confusion with hypoxaemia suggests acute deterioration and needs immediate assessment. A COPD patient within their usual target range, a request for tea and an improving DVT are not urgent. Delegated observations must be reported and acted on promptly.
答案: A · Subtle weakness in one arm
When a weak arm drifts down and turns palm-down (pronates), it suggests a mild upper motor neuron weakness, for example from a stroke. It can detect weakness that is not obvious on routine testing.
答案: A · Possible postictal (Todd's) paresis, but a stroke must still be excluded
Todd's paresis is a temporary weakness after a seizure that usually resolves within hours to a couple of days. Because a stroke can cause seizures and look the same, the patient still needs a full assessment and usually imaging.
答案: B · Avoid heavy lifting early on and use support garments as advised
Avoiding heavy lifting in the early months, supporting the abdomen when coughing, gentle core exercises as advised by the stoma team and a healthy weight may reduce risk.
答案: B · Potassium 6.0 mmol/L
Spironolactone blocks aldosterone and can cause hyperkalaemia, which risks arrhythmias. A potassium of 6.0 mmol/L is above the normal range (about 3.5–5.0) and needs urgent review before further doses.
答案: A · A port-wine stain does not fade with time
Stork bites on the neck or eyelids are flat pink capillary marks that usually fade. A port-wine stain is a permanent vascular malformation; on the face it may be linked with Sturge–Weber syndrome.
答案: A · To reduce the baby's risk of cerebral palsy
Before about 32 weeks, magnesium sulfate given when preterm birth is imminent reduces the risk of cerebral palsy. It is a neuroprotective use, separate from seizure prevention in pre-eclampsia.
答案: A · Count the apical pulse for a full minute and check it against the prescribed limits
Digoxin slows the heart rate and has a narrow therapeutic range. The apical pulse is counted for a full minute before each dose, and the dose is withheld and reported if the rate is below the limit set by the prescriber or local policy.
答案: D · Compensated shock that needs urgent treatment
Tachycardia, prolonged capillary refill and cool peripheries with a normal blood pressure suggest compensated shock. Children can maintain blood pressure until they suddenly decompensate, so urgent medical review and fluid resuscitation are needed.
答案: A · 保持稳定、正常的盐摄入,并摄入足够的液体,尤其是在炎热天气或生病时
当钠或液体丢失时(出汗、呕吐、腹泻、低盐饮食),肾脏会保留更多的锂,血锂水平升高。稳定的盐和液体摄入可使水平保持稳定。
答案: D · 对她进行躯体评估,包括生命体征,并按规定做心电图,而不是先假定是惊恐发作
必须排除心脏病发作或肺栓塞等躯体原因。“诊断遮蔽”,即假定症状是精神性的,是一种常见而危险的错误。
答案: h = 163 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: c = 2.48 mg/dL
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 8.4 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.39 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: R = 20 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: D = 5 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 5.3 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 830 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 2.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 13:10 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 4
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 20.4 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 15.5 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.36 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(360 ms)
答案: 起搏心律,夺获失败
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
夺获失败:起搏器发放了脉冲,但心脏没有反应。教科书把它视为需要紧急报告的情况,因为患者可能依赖起搏器。
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