感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a patient collect a midstream urine sample?
A competent adult who is a Jehovah's Witness refuses a blood transfusion that the team believes is needed. Which two ethical principles are in conflict?
A family member tells the nurse, “My father is not himself. Something is wrong.” The hospital has a family-activated rapid response system. What is correct?
A patient with fever and a spreading rash is suspected of having smallpox. Which precautions are needed?
A patient coughs hard after abdominal surgery, and loops of bowel appear through the opened wound. What does the nurse do first?
After a head injury, a patient passes large amounts of very dilute urine, is thirsty and has a rising serum sodium. Which condition is most likely?
一名患者的癫痫发作已持续超过五分钟。这意味着什么?
A patient with lung cancer develops swelling of the face and arms, distended neck veins and breathlessness that is worse lying down. What should be suspected?
在给予处方的静脉氯化钾之前,哪项评估最重要?
Which set of results most strongly suggests hemolytic anemia?
Why is ketorolac given only for a short course?
A patient taking furosemide has a serum potassium of 2.9 mmol/L (mEq/L). Which ECG change is typical of this level?
Which feature of a COPD exacerbation most suggests that antibiotics are needed?
Shortly after a thoracentesis, a patient becomes breathless with sharp chest pain and reduced breath sounds on the same side. What complication is most likely?
Which approach helps most when talking to a patient with expressive aphasia?
在这些急性缺血性卒中患者中,哪一位最不可能适合静脉溶栓?
Which early symptoms suggest local anaesthetic systemic toxicity?
While a central line is disconnected, a patient suddenly becomes breathless with chest pain and hypotension. Air embolism is suspected. What should the nurse do first?
Parents ask why their baby is having a pulse oximetry check on the right hand and a foot. What is the reason?
A pregnant woman tests positive for hepatitis B surface antigen. What should the nurse expect for the newborn?
为什么儿童通常避免使用阿司匹林,而在川崎病中却使用它?
一名儿童今天上午做了扁桃体切除术,现在频繁吞咽并吐出鲜红色血液。护士应首先做什么?
Which treatment is recommended first-line for chronic insomnia in adults?
After her house burned down, a woman developed delusions and disorganised speech. Ten days later the symptoms have gone completely and she is back to normal. Which diagnosis best fits?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 8:30 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了8 fl oz / 果汁, 4 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ¼ 杯 / 茶, 3 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 80 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 2 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 250 mL 中含 20000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1200 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 100 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 5 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含 100 单位普通胰岛素、容量 250 mL 的输液以 2 mL/h 输注。患者每小时接受多少单位 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 25 mL/h 输注。患者体重 104 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 12:15 开始用输液泵以 75 mL/h 输注。到 20:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 95%正在补充吸氧,血压 100/60 mmHg,脉搏 48 次/分,清醒,体温 37.1 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 100 kg,身高 177 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.44,PaCO₂ 26 mmHg (3.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
练习数值:Na⁺ 134,Cl⁻ 101,HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L,白蛋白 25 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: A · Pass the first part into the toilet, then catch the middle part in the pot
After cleaning, the first stream flushes bacteria from the urethra, so the midstream part is collected in a sterile container. This reduces contamination.
答案: B · Autonomy and beneficence
The patient's right to decide (autonomy) conflicts with the team's wish to do good (beneficence). A valid refusal by a competent adult is respected, and alternatives to blood are explored.
答案: D · The family can call the rapid response team if they are worried and staff have not responded
Family-activated rapid response systems allow patients and families to call for help directly when they notice a worrying change. The nurse should also take the concern seriously and assess the patient.
答案: D · Airborne and contact precautions
Smallpox spreads by respiratory particles and by contact with lesions or contaminated items, so airborne and contact precautions are used. Only immunized staff should provide care where possible.
答案: B · Cover the wound with sterile dressings moistened with saline
Evisceration is a surgical emergency. The nurse covers the organs with sterile saline-moistened dressings, stays with the patient, positions them to reduce strain and calls the surgeon at once.
答案: B · Diabetes insipidus
Damage to the pituitary or hypothalamus can stop the release of antidiuretic hormone, causing diabetes insipidus. The patient loses water, so urine is dilute and sodium rises; SIADH causes the opposite.
答案: D · 应按癫痫持续状态处理并给予急救药物
发作持续五分钟或更长,或反复发作而意识未恢复,应按癫痫持续状态处理。防止受伤,给氧,并遵医嘱给予急救抗惊厥药。
答案: B · Superior vena cava obstruction
Superior vena cava obstruction prevents venous drainage from the head and arms. It is an oncological emergency; patients are positioned upright and need urgent specialist treatment.
答案: A · 尿量和肾功能
肾脏排泄钾,因此尿量少或肾衰竭可能导致补钾期间发生危险的高钾血症。静脉钾必须稀释,并通过输液泵输注,绝不能静脉推注。核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Low hemoglobin, high reticulocytes, high unconjugated bilirubin, high LDH
When red cells break down early, hemoglobin is turned into unconjugated bilirubin and LDH is released, while the marrow increases reticulocytes. Option B fits iron deficiency, C fits B12 deficiency and D fits marrow failure.核对依据: Hemolytic anemia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Reticulocyte Count · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Bilirubin Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · GI bleeding and kidney injury become more likely with longer use
Ketorolac is a potent NSAID used for short-term moderate to severe pain. Its risks of GI bleeding, kidney injury and bleeding are high, so treatment is limited to a few days.
答案: A · Flattened T waves and prominent U waves
Hypokalaemia causes flat T waves, ST depression and U waves, and it increases the risk of arrhythmias. Peaked T waves and wide QRS complexes are signs of hyperkalaemia.
答案: C · An increase in purulent (green or yellow) sputum
Antibiotics are usually considered when sputum becomes more purulent, especially with more breathlessness or sputum volume, or signs of pneumonia. Many exacerbations are viral. Oral corticosteroids and increased bronchodilators are also used.
答案: D · Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax is a common complication of thoracentesis, caused by the needle puncturing the lung or air entering the chest. The nurse assesses the patient, gives oxygen and informs the team, who will arrange a chest X-ray. An effusion re-accumulates over days, and infection appears later.
答案: C · Ask questions that can be answered with yes, no or a gesture
In expressive aphasia, comprehension is largely preserved. Short, closed questions, extra time, gestures and picture or word boards help. Shouting does not help, and constantly finishing sentences can frustrate the patient.
答案: C · 五天前做过腹部大手术的患者
近期大手术(许多指南中为约 14 天内)会大大增加出血风险,是溶栓的禁忌证。发病在 4.5 小时内、血压低于 185/110 mmHg 和 CT 无出血,都是允许溶栓的条件。
答案: D · Tingling around the mouth, a metallic taste and tinnitus
High blood levels of local anaesthetic first cause CNS symptoms such as perioral tingling, metallic taste, tinnitus, light-headedness and confusion, then seizures and arrhythmias. The injection is stopped and help is called at once.
答案: A · Clamp the line, lie the patient left side down, head low; give oxygen
Air can enter an open central line. Clamping stops more air entering; the left lateral, head-down position may keep air in the right heart away from the pulmonary outflow. High-flow oxygen and emergency help are given.
答案: C · To screen for critical congenital heart disease
Pulse oximetry screening compares oxygen saturation in the right hand (pre-ductal) and a foot (post-ductal). A low reading or a significant difference can indicate critical congenital heart disease.
答案: A · Hepatitis B vaccine within hours of birth, often with immunoglobulin
Babies of HBsAg-positive mothers get a first dose of hepatitis B vaccine soon after birth. In the US, all of them also receive hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG) within 12 hours; in the UK, the vaccine is given within 24 hours and HBIG is added when the mother is highly infectious (for example HBeAg-positive or with a high viral load). Breastfeeding is not contraindicated, and the vaccine series is completed later.
答案: C · 在专科医生监督下,它可减轻炎症并降低冠状动脉血栓的风险
川崎病是一种血管炎,可导致冠状动脉瘤。在专科医生监督下,用静脉注射免疫球蛋白和阿司匹林治疗,并通过超声心动图检查冠状动脉。
答案: A · 评估咽喉和生命体征,并紧急通知外科医生
频繁吞咽和鲜红色血液提示术后出血。让孩子保持直立或侧卧,评估生命体征,并用手电筒检查咽喉,立即通知外科医生。
答案: A · Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I)
CBT-I combines sleep education, stimulus control, sleep restriction and work on unhelpful beliefs about sleep. It has lasting effects and fewer risks than long-term sleeping tablets.
答案: D · Brief psychotic disorder
Brief psychotic disorder lasts at least 1 day but less than 1 month, followed by a full return to the previous level of functioning. It may follow a severe stressor.
答案: 20:30
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 375 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 80 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: D = 10 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: D = 0.8 件/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 6.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 800 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 400 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 6
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 肥胖 I 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: AGc = 19.75 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: QTc = 0.448 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(448 ms)
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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