感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient asks to see their own health records. What is correct in the UK?
While counting an apical pulse, the nurse finds the rhythm is irregularly irregular and the radial rate is lower than the apical rate. Which rhythm is most likely?
一名疑似结核病患者住在负压病房。下列哪项做法是正确的?
Why can a patient with severe neutropenia have a serious infection but little redness, swelling or pus?
Which patient is most suitable for the nurse to assign to a nurse who has just finished orientation?
Which patient is the most appropriate to assign to an LPN/LVN?
Which is a recognised risk factor for postoperative nausea and vomiting?
During CPR for asystole, when should adrenaline (epinephrine) be given according to standard adult guidelines?
Why must a blue-top (citrate) coagulation tube be filled to the correct level?
A patient with a heart murmur and fever has three sets of blood cultures, taken hours apart, all growing the same Streptococcus species. What does this suggest?
A malnourished patient with alcohol dependence needs IV glucose. Which vitamin should be given before or with it?
A drug is ordered at 5 micrograms/kg/min for an 80 kg patient. The infusion contains 1,600 micrograms per mL. What rate in mL/h is needed?
Why are beta-blockers often started after a myocardial infarction?
经桡动脉心导管检查术后,最重要的评估是什么?
A patient receives phenytoin through a nasogastric tube along with continuous enteral feed. Which issue should the nurse know about?
A patient with a known ureteric stone develops a fever of 39 °C (102.2 °F) and rigors. Scanning shows a blocked, swollen kidney. What is needed?
A patient with a new colostomy asks what to eat at home. Which advice is most appropriate?
A patient with cirrhosis and ascites has a falling urine output and a rising creatinine. They have not received nephrotoxic drugs and are not dehydrated. Which complication is likely?
分娩时婴儿头部已娩出,但肩膀卡住了。标准的第一步手法是什么?
A woman needs an emergency caesarean under general anaesthesia. Why is she given an antacid such as sodium citrate before induction?
How should the nurse measure the heart rate of a 9-month-old?
A child recovering from acute rheumatic fever with heart involvement asks why she needs regular penicillin for years. What is the best answer?
一名患者要从 MAOI 换为 SSRI。什么是必不可少的?
A woman taking carbamazepine for bipolar disorder uses an oral contraceptive pill. What should the nurse teach?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 59.705 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 80 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
一名体重 119 kg 的患者体表面积为 2.1 m²。医嘱为 50 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一袋输液在 250 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1500 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 500 mL 中含药 100 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 0.1 units/kg/h,患者体重 90 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 500 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 2.5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 55 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 106 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 11:30 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 150 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 99%正在补充吸氧,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 48 次/分,清醒,体温 36.0 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,新出现意识模糊,体温 36.1 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 42 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
测量这条 II 导联心电图上的QT 间期,以秒为单位。
请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。仅凭这一条心电图条带,你能为哪种解读辩护?点击你的答案。
答案: A · Patients have a legal right to request access to their records
Under data protection law, patients can request access to their health records. The nurse explains the local process for making a request.
答案: C · Atrial fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation gives an irregularly irregular pulse, and some beats are too weak to be felt at the wrist, causing a pulse deficit. It should be reported and confirmed with an ECG.
答案: A · 除进出外,保持房门关闭
房门应保持关闭,以维持流入房间的气流。应限制访客,并根据规定指导其做好呼吸防护。
答案: B · There are too few neutrophils to produce the usual inflammatory signs
Classic signs of infection come from the inflammatory response, which depends on white blood cells. With very few neutrophils, fever may be the only early sign, so it must be taken seriously.
答案: B · A patient with stable cellulitis on scheduled IV antibiotics
A newly oriented nurse is best given stable patients with predictable care. The other patients have changing or high-risk conditions that need more experience and close monitoring.
答案: B · A patient with a long-standing tracheostomy who needs routine suctioning and care
Routine tracheostomy care for a stable, long-term patient fits the LPN/LVN role in most settings. Fresh or bleeding tracheostomies, new admissions and titrated IV drugs need RN assessment.
答案: C · Use of opioids after surgery
Known risk factors include opioids, female sex, being a non-smoker, previous PONV or motion sickness and longer general anaesthetics. High-risk patients may be given preventive antiemetics.
答案: A · As soon as IV or IO access is obtained, then every 3–5 minutes
In non-shockable rhythms, adrenaline is given as soon as possible and repeated every 3–5 minutes while CPR continues. In shockable rhythms it is given after the third shock in UK/European guidelines (after the second shock in AHA guidelines).
答案: A · The blood-to-anticoagulant ratio must be right for accurate clotting times
Citrate tubes contain a set volume of anticoagulant. If the tube is underfilled, the extra citrate falsely prolongs the PT and aPTT, so the laboratory may reject the sample.
答案: D · Persistent bacteremia, as in infective endocarditis
Several positive cultures with the same organism, taken at different times, show continuous bacteremia, typical of infective endocarditis. Echocardiography is done and prolonged IV antibiotics are started. Contamination usually affects only one bottle.核对依据: Blood culture · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: D · Thiamine (vitamin B1)
Giving glucose without thiamine to a thiamine-deficient patient can trigger or worsen Wernicke's encephalopathy. Thiamine is therefore given before or alongside glucose.
答案: B · 15 mL/h
5 × 80 = 400 micrograms/min, × 60 = 24,000 micrograms/h, ÷ 1,600 micrograms/mL = 15 mL/h. Weight-based infusions are double-checked because errors are easy to make.
答案: D · They lower the heart's oxygen demand and reduce arrhythmias
Beta-blockers slow the heart and reduce contractility, lowering myocardial oxygen demand, and protect against arrhythmias. They are particularly beneficial when the ejection fraction is reduced. They are used cautiously in heart block, severe bradycardia, acute heart failure and asthma.
答案: B · 手部的血液循环、感觉和活动,以及穿刺部位
桡动脉入路后,应检查压迫装置和穿刺部位有无出血或血肿,并检查手部的颜色、温度、毛细血管再充盈、感觉和活动。桡动脉闭塞和前臂骨筋膜室综合征是可能的并发症。
答案: B · The feed can reduce phenytoin absorption, so the feed is often paused around the dose
Enteral feeds can bind phenytoin and greatly reduce how much is absorbed. Local protocols usually pause the feed before and after the dose and flush the tube. Drug levels are monitored.
答案: A · Urgent drainage of the kidney plus IV antibiotics
Infection behind an obstruction can quickly cause sepsis and kidney damage. Antibiotics alone will not clear it. The kidney needs urgent decompression, usually with a nephrostomy or ureteric stent.
答案: D · Eat a normal, balanced diet and introduce foods gradually
People with a colostomy can usually eat a normal diet. Foods are reintroduced gradually to see how each one affects gas, odour and output, and regular meals and fluids help.
答案: C · Hepatorenal syndrome
In hepatorenal syndrome, severe vasodilation in advanced liver disease reduces kidney perfusion, causing kidney failure without another cause. It carries a poor prognosis and is managed by specialists, often with albumin and vasoconstrictors.
答案: C · McRoberts 手法加耻骨上加压
对于肩难产,应呼叫援助,将产妇大腿急剧屈向腹部(McRoberts),并施加耻骨上加压,而不是宫底加压。宫底加压和用力牵拉头部可能加重嵌顿并伤及婴儿。
答案: A · To make aspirated stomach contents less acidic
Pregnant women are at high risk of aspirating stomach contents under general anaesthesia. Sodium citrate neutralises gastric acid, reducing the severity of lung injury if aspiration happens.
答案: B · Count the apical pulse for a full minute
In infants and children under about 2 years, the apical pulse is counted with a stethoscope for a full minute. Their rates are fast and may vary with breathing, so short counts are inaccurate.
答案: B · To prevent new strep infections that could cause further attacks and more valve damage
Recurrent episodes of rheumatic fever follow new group A streptococcal infections and worsen rheumatic heart disease. Long-term secondary prophylaxis with penicillin prevents these infections; it does not reverse existing damage.
答案: B · 在开始使用 SSRI 前有约 2 周的洗脱期
MAOI 与 SSRI 合用可导致 5-羟色胺综合征。停用 MAOI 后通常需要约 2 周的洗脱期;由氟西汀换为 MAOI 时,由于其半衰期长,需要更长的间隔(约 5 周)。
答案: A · Carbamazepine can make the pill less effective, so she should discuss contraception with the prescriber
Carbamazepine induces liver enzymes and speeds up the breakdown of many drugs, including hormonal contraceptives. This can lead to unplanned pregnancy, and carbamazepine is also teratogenic.
答案: x = 60 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 1.92 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 105 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 7.5 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 42 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:42 滴/分。
答案: D = 2.4 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 22.5 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 4.1 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.49 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 19:10 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 4
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: PaCO₂ = 29 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: PaCO₂ = 50.4 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: QT = 0.42 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
粗略的规则:在正常心率下,QT 应小于 R–R 间期的一半(此处 R–R = 0.88 s)。
答案: 2:1 房室传导阻滞(类型未定)
2:1 房室传导阻滞:每个 QRS 对应两个 P 波时,没有两个下传的 P 波连续出现,所以无法看出在未下传的 P 波之前,PR 间期是逐渐延长(I 型)还是保持恒定(II 型)。仅凭一条心电图条带,只能称为 2:1 房室传导阻滞;更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定类型。QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但两者都不能证明。
QRS 较窄时更可能是 I 型,QRS 增宽时更可能是 II 型,但只有更长的条带或传导比例的改变才能决定。
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