感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should a nurse help a patient with severe visual impairment on admission?
On the day after surgery, a patient's new stoma has turned dark purple. What should the nurse do?
A nurse who never had BCG vaccine has a positive tuberculin skin test for the first time. The chest x-ray is clear and there are no symptoms. What does this most likely mean?
A patient given naloxone for an opioid overdose wakes up. An hour later, the patient is drowsy again with slow breathing. What is the likely reason?
Before giving a scheduled dose of metoprolol, which assessment is most important?
一名护士认为开出的剂量不安全。开医嘱者说无论如何要给药。护士应怎么做?
Which of these is a non-drug measure that can help relieve pain?
Which feature suggests moisture-associated skin damage rather than a pressure ulcer?
A patient has taken a proton pump inhibitor (such as omeprazole) for many years and now has muscle cramps and tremor. Which electrolyte is most likely to be low?
Two weeks after a sore throat, a child develops dark (cola-colored) urine, puffy eyes and high blood pressure. Urinalysis shows red cell casts and protein. Which condition is most likely?
格列齐特等磺脲类药物最重要的不良反应是什么?
A baby born to a mother on methadone becomes irritable on day 2, with a high-pitched cry, tremors, sneezing and poor feeding. What is the most likely cause?
Before the first treatment dose of a low-molecular-weight heparin for a PE, what does the nurse need to make sure of?
一名服用阿哌沙班治疗心房颤动的患者已预约择期手术。下列哪项说法体现了正确做法?
一名 AKI 患者的导尿管没有任何尿液引出。哪项快速床旁检查有助于排除肾后性原因?
A man who takes tamsulosin for BPH is listed for cataract surgery. Which statement is correct?
Which practice is correct when giving parenteral nutrition through a central line?
腹部手术后第 6 天,一名患者说咳嗽时有东西“裂开了”,并且伤口处可见肠管。护士应立即做什么?
A woman at 37 weeks is GBS-positive. When should she receive antibiotics?
一名女性在妊娠 26 周时刚被诊断为妊娠期糖尿病。通常的第一步处理是什么?
Which daily monitoring is most useful for a child with nephrotic syndrome?
A baby born to a mother who used opioids in pregnancy has a high-pitched cry, tremors, sneezing and poor feeding. Which plan is best?
A patient who has started chlorpromazine feels dizzy when she gets out of bed. What should the nurse teach her?
A patient who has taken haloperidol for many years now has repeated lip smacking and tongue movements. Which action is most appropriate?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次小剂量注射的计算得到 0.49386 mL。 本练习的规则是:低于 1 mL 的体积取到最接近的百分之一 mL。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1 tsp,每天四次,共 7 天。混悬液每瓶 50 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
5 mL 的 1%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
一名患者身高 119 cm,体重 31 kg。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
滴注以 60 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
将 100 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 75 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 50 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 19 mL/h 输注。患者体重 74 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 08:30 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 50 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 92%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 36.3 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 67 kg,身高 168 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 144 mmol/L,葡萄糖 12.2 mmol/L,尿素 20 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.26,PaCO₂ 71 mmHg (9.5 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 31 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: B · Introduce themselves, describe the room and keep items in place
Saying who you are, explaining the layout and keeping items in familiar places help orientation and safety. When guiding, let the patient hold your arm.
答案: C · Report it urgently, as the stoma may be losing its blood supply
A dusky, purple or black stoma suggests ischaemia or necrosis, which can need surgery. The nurse reports it to the surgical team at once.
答案: B · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious
A positive skin test with no symptoms and a normal chest x-ray suggests latent TB infection. The person cannot spread TB but should be evaluated for treatment to prevent active disease later.
答案: B · Naloxone wears off sooner than many opioids, so the opioid effect returns
Naloxone acts for a shorter time than many opioids, so sedation and respiratory depression can return. Patients are monitored closely, and repeat doses or an infusion may be needed.
答案: C · Apical pulse and blood pressure
Metoprolol can cause bradycardia and hypotension, so the nurse checks the apical pulse and blood pressure first. The dose is held and reported according to the prescribed parameters.
答案: A · 暂停给药,并通过指挥链上报
认为医嘱不安全的护士不应给药,应记录所担忧之处,并通过指挥链上报,直到问题解决。自行更改剂量或悄悄漏给是不安全的,也超出护理范围。
答案: D · Repositioning and distraction
Positioning, heat or cold where safe, relaxation, distraction and explanation can all reduce pain alongside analgesics.
答案: A · Diffuse, superficial redness in a skin fold, not over a bony prominence
Moisture lesions are superficial, irregular and often in skin folds or areas exposed to incontinence. Pressure ulcers usually occur over bony prominences or under devices and may be deeper.
答案: C · Magnesium
Long-term proton pump inhibitor use can cause hypomagnesemia by reducing its absorption in the gut. Low magnesium causes tremor, cramps, hyperreflexia and arrhythmias, and it can also cause low potassium and low calcium.核对依据: Magnesium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023); Proton pump inhibitors and hypomagnesemia: A meta-analysis of observational studies · PubMed Central (NIH/NLM)
答案: C · Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
Red cell casts show bleeding from the glomeruli, which is typical of glomerulonephritis. After a streptococcal infection, immune complexes inflame the glomeruli, causing hematuria, proteinuria, edema and hypertension. Cystitis and stones do not cause red cell casts.核对依据: Strep A Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · 低血糖
磺脲类关闭 β 细胞上的 ATP 敏感性钾通道,促使胰岛素释放。即使血糖已经很低,胰岛素仍会释放,因此低血糖是主要风险。
答案: A · Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome
After birth the baby no longer receives opioid from the mother and develops withdrawal. Assessment uses a scoring tool, with non-drug care first and opioid treatment if signs are severe.
答案: C · An accurate, recent body weight is recorded
Treatment doses of LMWH are based on body weight, so an accurate measured weight is essential. Renal function and platelet count are also checked before starting. Guessing the weight can lead to under- or overdosing.
答案: C · 根据出血风险和肾功能,暂停用药一段设定的时间
由于 DOAC 在数天内失效,通常根据手术的出血风险和肾功能,在术前暂停一段规定的时间(常为 1–3 天);一般不需要肝素桥接。维生素 K 不能逆转 DOAC。
答案: C · 检查导尿管有无扭曲或堵塞,并做膀胱扫描
导尿管堵塞或扭曲,或膀胱膨胀,可以引起或模拟无尿。检查管路、在允许时冲洗或更换导尿管,以及做膀胱扫描,可迅速发现梗阻。肾脏超声用于寻找肾积水等更上方的梗阻。
答案: C · The eye surgeon must be told, as it can cause floppy iris during surgery
Tamsulosin blocks alpha-1A receptors in the iris dilator muscle as well as in the prostate, which can cause intraoperative floppy iris syndrome during cataract surgery. The effect can persist after the drug is stopped, so the surgeon must know in advance to plan the operation. Whether to pause it is a decision for the team.
答案: D · Use a dedicated lumen and strict aseptic technique
PN is rich in nutrients that bacteria can use. A dedicated lumen, aseptic non-touch technique and hanging limits reduce catheter-related bloodstream infection.
答案: C · 用生理盐水浸湿的无菌敷料覆盖,屈膝,呼叫外科医生
内脏脱出是外科急症。用无菌、生理盐水浸湿的敷料覆盖脏器,让患者取低半卧位并屈膝以减少张力,保持禁食,监测休克并呼叫外科医生。绝不能试图将脏器还纳。
答案: A · Intravenously during labour
Oral antibiotics before labour do not prevent recolonisation. IV antibiotics in labour, given ideally at least 4 hours before birth, greatly reduce early-onset GBS disease in the newborn.
答案: A · 营养指导、体育活动和血糖监测,如未达标再用药
一线处理是医学营养治疗、活动和自我血糖监测。如果未达标,则加用胰岛素等药物。产后需再次检测血糖,因为患 2 型糖尿病的风险升高。
答案: C · Weight and urine dipstick for protein
Daily weights show changes in fluid retention, and urine dipsticks show whether protein loss is improving or relapsing. Abdominal girth and blood pressure are also often monitored.
答案: D · Low-stimulation care, swaddling, small frequent feeds and a withdrawal scoring tool
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with calm, low-stimulation care, swaddling, frequent feeds and support for parents, with regular scoring to guide any drug treatment. Naloxone is avoided because it can trigger acute withdrawal and seizures.
答案: D · Sit on the edge of the bed for a moment and then stand up slowly
Many antipsychotics cause orthostatic hypotension through alpha-1 blockade. Rising slowly reduces dizziness and the risk of falls; the nurse also checks lying and standing blood pressure.
答案: A · Report the movements, assess them with a scale such as the AIMS and ask for a medication review
These are signs of tardive dyskinesia, which can be permanent. Early detection and review of the antipsychotic are key; anticholinergic drugs do not treat tardive dyskinesia and may worsen it.
答案: x = 0.49 mL
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: N = 3
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: m = 50 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: D = 75.92 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: V = 240 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 3 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 6.8 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 1055 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 18.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 18 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 03:00 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 2
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 320 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 慢性基础上的急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.38 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(380 ms)
答案: 三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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