感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
In which direction should a female patient's perineum be cleaned?
Before giving a PRN dose of oral morphine, which assessment is most important?
In the US (EPA/OSHA) hazmat system, which level of PPE gives the highest level of protection?
A patient with suspected sepsis has orders for blood cultures and an IV antibiotic. What is the correct order of actions?
A nurse teaches a patient who uses crutches. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient with Guillain-Barré syndrome has weakness that is spreading up from the legs. Which assessment has the highest priority?
Which tool is commonly used at the bedside to screen for delirium?
A patient two days after abdominal surgery coughs and says something "gave way". The wound has opened and bowel is visible. What should the nurse do first?
In countries that screen all pregnant women (such as the US), a vaginal-rectal swab is taken at about 36–37 weeks. Which organism is it screening for?
A patient with cirrhosis and ascites has fever and abdominal tenderness. The ascitic fluid neutrophil count is 400 cells/mm³. What does this indicate?
After instilling eye drops, why should the patient press gently on the inner corner of the eye for a minute or two?
A patient with an epidural infusion of local anaesthetic becomes hypotensive. What is the most likely mechanism?
How is a patient usually positioned for a thoracentesis?
A patient regains a pulse after a ventricular fibrillation arrest that was probably caused by a heart attack. Which investigation is most urgent?
A kidney transplant recipient asks about travel vaccines. Which statement is correct?
The day after a lumbar puncture, a patient has a headache that is severe when standing and almost gone when lying flat. Temperature and neck movement are normal. What is the most likely cause?
Which advice has good evidence for reducing cancer-related fatigue?
全身麻醉期间,一名患者出现下颌强直、呼气末 CO₂ 升高和心动过速,随后体温迅速上升。哪种药物是特异性治疗?
出生后最初几小时内,哪名新生儿发生低血糖的风险最大?
Which statement by a woman in early labour shows a need for further teaching about pain relief?
新生儿的哪项发现提示先天性巨结肠?
An infant on digoxin has vomited twice. The apical pulse is below the limit set by the prescriber. What should the nurse do?
Which postpartum presentation is a psychiatric emergency?
A patient says, "My boss didn't say hello this morning, so she must think I'm useless." Which cognitive distortion is shown, and what is a helpful nursing response?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.5 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2 fl oz / 果汁, ½ 杯 / 茶, 3 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 2½ tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
某患者体重 60 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 25 mg/kg,分 4 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 20 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 120 mg。你应给多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
滴注以 75 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
100 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 12 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 7 units/h。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dopamine 800 mg,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 10 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 77 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 07:30 时已输入 200 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 11 次/分,SpO₂ 96%正在补充吸氧,血压 88/52 mmHg,脉搏 140 次/分,清醒,体温 36.3 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 47 kg,身高 154 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.50,PaCO₂ 21 mmHg (2.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 34 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · From front to back
Cleaning from the urethra towards the anus moves bacteria away from the urinary tract and lowers the risk of urinary tract infection.
答案: A · The respiratory rate and level of sedation
Opioids can cause sedation and respiratory depression. Checking breathing and alertness before each dose, as well as the pain score, keeps the patient safe.
答案: D · Level A
Level A is a fully encapsulating, vapor-tight suit with self-contained breathing apparatus, used for unknown or highly toxic agents. Level D is ordinary work clothing with minimal protection.
答案: D · Draw the blood cultures first, then give the antibiotic without delay
Cultures are drawn before the first antibiotic dose so the organism can still be grown and identified. The antibiotic is then given promptly, because delay increases the risk of death in sepsis.
答案: C · “I will lean on the crutch pads under my arms to rest.”
Leaning on the axillary pads can compress the nerves in the armpit. Weight should be taken through the hands, and the home should be made safe from trip hazards.
答案: C · Breathing strength, such as vital capacity and the ability to cough
Guillain-Barré syndrome causes ascending weakness that can involve the respiratory muscles. Falling vital capacity or a weak cough can mean the patient needs ventilation, so breathing is monitored closely.
答案: D · The Confusion Assessment Method (CAM)
The CAM, and similar tools such as the 4AT, check for an acute onset or fluctuating course, inattention and disorganised thinking or altered consciousness. Early detection allows causes to be treated.
答案: D · Cover the wound with sterile, saline-moistened dressings and get urgent surgical help
Evisceration is a surgical emergency. The exposed bowel is covered with sterile moist dressings, the patient is positioned to reduce tension on the abdomen (for example knees bent), kept nil by mouth and reviewed urgently.
答案: B · Group B Streptococcus
Group B streptococci can colonize the vagina and rectum and can cause severe infection in newborns. Women who test positive receive IV antibiotics during labor to reduce transmission to the baby. The UK does not screen all women routinely; it uses a risk-based approach instead.核对依据: Group B streptococcal septicemia of the newborn · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: C · Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
An ascitic neutrophil count of 250 cells/mm³ or more indicates spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, which is treated with antibiotics. It can occur without classic signs, so new confusion or worsening kidney function in cirrhosis should also prompt a diagnostic paracentesis.核对依据: Ascites · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Peritonitis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · To reduce drainage into the nose and absorption into blood
Nasolacrimal occlusion keeps the drop in the eye longer and reduces systemic absorption through the nasal mucosa. This matters for drugs such as timolol, which can cause bradycardia or bronchospasm.
答案: B · Blockade of sympathetic nerves causes vasodilation
Epidural local anaesthetics block sympathetic fibres as well as sensory nerves. This dilates blood vessels and lowers blood pressure, so fluids, position changes or vasopressors may be needed.
答案: D · Sitting upright and leaning forward over a table
Sitting upright and leaning forward on a bedside table widens the intercostal spaces at the back and lets the fluid settle at the base. If the patient cannot sit, lying on the unaffected side may be used.
答案: C · A 12-lead ECG
After return of spontaneous circulation, a 12-lead ECG looks for STEMI, which needs urgent coronary angiography and PCI. Post-resuscitation care also aims for normal oxygen and CO₂ levels, blood pressure support, glucose control and avoiding fever.
答案: C · Live vaccines are usually avoided
Live vaccines, such as yellow fever, can cause infection in immunosuppressed patients and are usually avoided. Inactivated vaccines, such as influenza, are recommended, although the response may be weaker.
答案: B · Post-dural puncture headache
A positional headache after a lumbar puncture, without fever or neck stiffness, fits a CSF leak. It is managed with rest, fluids, analgesia and caffeine, and an epidural blood patch if it persists. Fever or neck stiffness would suggest infection instead.
答案: C · Regular light to moderate activity, such as walking
Exercise, matched to ability, reduces cancer-related fatigue. Pacing, prioritising activities, sleep routines and treating causes such as anaemia or depression also help.
答案: B · 丹曲林
恶性高热的治疗包括停用触发药物、用 100% 氧气过度通气、静脉给予丹曲林(减少肌质网钙释放)、主动降温,以及治疗高钾血症和心律失常。琥珀酰胆碱是触发因素。
答案: B · 糖尿病母亲所生的巨大儿
母亲的高血糖通过胎盘,胎儿因而分泌过多胰岛素。脐带剪断后,葡萄糖供应中断,但胰岛素仍然很高。早产儿、小婴儿和受冷的婴儿也有风险。
答案: B · "If I have an epidural, I will not need my blood pressure checked."
Epidurals often cause hypotension, so blood pressure is checked frequently after they are started. Movement, breathing techniques and warm water are effective non-drug measures.
答案: C · 出生后 48 小时内未排出胎粪
胎粪排出延迟、腹胀和胆汁性呕吐提示先天性巨结肠。较大的儿童可能有慢性便秘和带状大便。
答案: B · Withhold the dose and inform the prescriber
Vomiting and bradycardia are signs of possible digoxin toxicity. The dose is withheld and the prescriber informed; a digoxin level and potassium level may be checked. The nurse should never alter the dose independently.
答案: B · Confusion, hallucinations and rapidly changing mood a few days after birth
Postpartum psychosis usually begins within days to weeks of birth and can include confusion, delusions and hallucinations. It carries risks to mother and baby and needs immediate assessment, often in hospital.
答案: C · Mind reading; ask what other reasons there might be for the boss's behaviour
Mind reading is assuming others' thoughts without evidence. Exploring alternative explanations, such as the boss being busy, helps the patient test the thought and reduce distress.
答案: T = 99.5 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 237.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 375 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 6.7 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 300 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 80 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 17.5 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 28.9 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1420 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 10:00 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 9
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 44.8 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 心房扑动,4:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 尖端扭转型室性心动过速
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
尖端扭转型室性心动过速是与 QT 间期延长相关的多形性 VT。这里只是识别练习。
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