感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
手动测量血压时,哪个声音标志着收缩压?
一名 70 kg、留置导尿管的术后患者在过去三小时内每小时尿量为 20 mL。最佳的解读是什么?
How are neuromuscular blocking drugs, such as vecuronium, safely stored?
A patient has signed a surgical consent form but tells the nurse, “I don’t really understand what they are going to do.” What should the nurse do?
During labor, the nurse sees the umbilical cord in the vagina after the membranes rupture. What is the first action?
哪位患者的发现最紧急?
Why is an urgent brain scan needed before thrombolysis for a suspected stroke?
Why might a patient with diabetes who takes a beta-blocker not notice hypoglycaemia early?
When is a peak level for an IV aminoglycoside such as gentamicin usually drawn?
A patient has taken metformin for 8 years and now has numbness in the feet, a hemoglobin of 10.2 g/dL (102 g/L) and an MCV of 108 fL. Which deficiency is most likely?
Why should loperamide usually be avoided in bloody diarrhoea with fever?
Why is adenosine used with caution in patients with asthma?
A 70 kg patient has passed 20 mL of urine per hour for the last three hours. How should this be interpreted?
Four hours after cardiac surgery, the mediastinal drain, which had been draining steadily, suddenly stops. BP falls to 84/60 mmHg, the heart rate rises and the CVP climbs. What should the nurse suspect?
一名服用卡比马唑治疗甲状腺功能亢进的患者主诉咽痛和发热。护士应怎么做?
A patient with type 1 diabetes is vomiting at home. Their glucose is 12 mmol/L (216 mg/dL), and blood ketones are 3.5 mmol/L. What advice is correct?
Why is thiamine given to patients with alcohol dependence admitted to hospital?
A patient's long-standing groin hernia has become tender, red and irreducible, and they are vomiting. What should the nurse do?
Which finding is a contraindication to a fetal scalp electrode?
A nurse is teaching a mother how to prevent shaken baby syndrome. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which task can the registered nurse delegate to a healthcare assistant (nursing assistant) on a children's ward?
The nurse has taught the parents of a child with epilepsy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
抑郁患者的哪种行为是可能有自杀意图的警示信号?
On a mental health ward, which task is most appropriate for the nurse to delegate to a healthcare assistant?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 38.3 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ¼ 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 4.6 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 5 mL。医嘱为 80 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
一名患者身高 111 cm,体重 33 kg。医嘱为 100 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求以 150 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 10 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 250 mL 中,通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 120 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 20 000 单位,容量 500 mL。医嘱为 12 units/kg/h,患者体重 54 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 72 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 30 mcg/min。输液袋中含 50 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 81 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 08:30 开始以 100 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 可能不足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 222/134 mmHg,脉搏 110 次/分,清醒,体温 36.9 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.25,PaCO₂ 42 mmHg (5.6 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.30,PaCO₂ 25 mmHg (3.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。从一组的第一个搏动到第二个搏动,PR 间期增加了多少(ΔPR),以秒为单位?
答案: B · 袖带放气时听到的第一个清晰的叩击音
收缩压是血液开始通过袖带时听到的第一个清晰的柯氏音。舒张压通常取声音消失时的读数。
答案: D · 少尿,应予上报,因为低于 0.5 mL/kg/h
对 70 kg 的成人来说,0.5 mL/kg/h 即 35 mL/h。连续数小时尿量 20 mL/h 提示肾灌注不良或急性肾损伤。应检查导尿管并上报。
答案: C · Separate from other drugs, with a warning that they cause paralysis
Neuromuscular blockers stop breathing. They are stored apart from other drugs, often in sealed or colored containers with warnings such as “Paralyzing agent: causes respiratory arrest”.
答案: C · Inform the surgeon so the procedure can be explained again before any sedation
Informed consent is the responsibility of the person doing the procedure. If the patient does not understand, the nurse pauses the process and tells the surgeon, before any sedative drug is given.
答案: A · Relieve pressure on the cord by lifting the presenting part with a gloved hand
In cord prolapse, the presenting part can compress the cord and cut off fetal oxygen. The nurse lifts the presenting part off the cord, calls for help and positions the patient (for example knee-chest) while urgent birth is arranged.
答案: C · 一名使用肝素输注的患者,新出现意识模糊和严重头痛
接受抗凝治疗的患者新出现意识模糊和剧烈头痛,可能意味着颅内出血。INR 2.5 在 2 至 3 的常用治疗范围内,注射部位的小瘀斑很常见。
答案: D · To rule out bleeding in the brain
A CT scan distinguishes haemorrhagic from ischaemic stroke. Clot-busting drugs are only given when bleeding has been excluded and other criteria are met.
答案: D · Beta-blockers can mask warning signs such as tremor and a fast heart rate
Tremor, palpitations and anxiety in hypoglycaemia are driven by the sympathetic system, which beta-blockers blunt. Sweating is often still present, and patients need to monitor glucose closely.
答案: B · About 30 minutes after the infusion ends
Peak aminoglycoside levels are usually drawn about 30 minutes after a 30-minute infusion ends, to confirm the level is high enough to kill bacteria. Troughs, drawn just before the next dose, check for accumulation. Local protocols may differ, especially with once-daily dosing.
答案: B · Vitamin B12 deficiency
Long-term metformin reduces vitamin B12 absorption in the gut. B12 deficiency causes macrocytic anemia and peripheral neuropathy, which can be mistaken for diabetic neuropathy. Periodic B12 testing is recommended for long-term users.核对依据: Vitamin B Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · Slowing the gut may keep bacteria and toxins in the bowel longer
In dysentery or suspected C. difficile infection, antimotility drugs may prolong illness and increase complications such as toxic megacolon. The cause is assessed and fluids are replaced first.
答案: D · It can cause bronchospasm
Adenosine can trigger bronchospasm in people with asthma or COPD. Other treatment options, such as verapamil, may be chosen.
答案: A · Below 0.5 mL/kg/h, suggesting poor kidney perfusion
A urine output below about 0.5 mL/kg/h (35 mL/h for 70 kg) for several hours is oliguria and may indicate hypovolaemia, shock or acute kidney injury. It should be reported along with the other observations, and the catheter checked for blockage.
答案: C · Cardiac tamponade from a clotted drain
A sudden stop in drainage with falling blood pressure, tachycardia and rising venous pressure suggests blood is collecting around the heart because the drain is blocked. Tamponade after cardiac surgery is an emergency: the surgeon is called at once and the chest may need to be reopened.
答案: C · 安排紧急全血细胞计数,排查粒细胞缺乏症
硫脲类药物(卡比马唑、甲巯咪唑、丙硫氧嘧啶)可引起粒细胞缺乏症,这是一种罕见但危及生命的中性粒细胞下降。应教导患者立即报告咽痛、发热或口腔溃疡,并紧急检查血常规;如果中性粒细胞偏低则停药。
答案: A · Seek urgent hospital assessment for possible DKA
Blood ketones above 3 mmol/L, especially with vomiting, mean a high risk of DKA, even if the glucose is only moderately raised. The patient needs urgent assessment. Insulin should not be stopped.
答案: D · To prevent Wernicke's encephalopathy
Thiamine deficiency is common in alcohol dependence and can cause Wernicke's encephalopathy (confusion, ataxia, eye signs). Thiamine is given early, ideally before or with glucose, as glucose can worsen deficiency.
答案: D · Keep them nil by mouth and arrange urgent surgical review
A tender, red, irreducible hernia with vomiting suggests strangulation and bowel obstruction. It needs emergency surgery; the nurse keeps the patient nil by mouth, gives analgesia, and starts IV access and fluids as prescribed.
答案: D · Maternal HIV infection
A scalp electrode punctures fetal skin and could transmit blood-borne infections such as HIV, hepatitis B or C and herpes. It needs ruptured membranes, some dilation and an identifiable presenting part.
答案: A · "If I feel very angry, it is fine to shake him a little to stop the crying."
Shaking a baby can cause brain injury, retinal haemorrhages and death. Parents are taught that crying is normal, to put the baby down safely and step away when frustrated, and to ask for help.
答案: D · Measuring and recording the vital signs of a stable child
Routine tasks with predictable outcomes for stable patients, such as recording vital signs, can be delegated. Assessment, care planning, teaching and evaluation remain the responsibility of the registered nurse, who also reviews the results.
答案: A · "I'll put a spoon in his mouth so he doesn't bite or swallow his tongue."
Putting objects in the mouth can break teeth, injure the mouth or block the airway; the tongue cannot be swallowed. Timing the seizure, protecting from injury and placing the child on the side afterwards are correct.
答案: C · 把珍贵的物品送人,并突然显得平静
警示信号包括谈论死亡、赠送财物、告别、在深度抑郁后情绪突然好转以及寻找自杀手段。
答案: B · Accompanying a stable patient to the dining room and recording his food intake
Routine, predictable tasks with stable patients, such as escorting and recording intake, can be delegated. Assessment, care planning, teaching and evaluation require the nurse's judgement.
答案: T = 100.9 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 85 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 0.8 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: D = 100.9 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 20 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 16.2 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 9 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 0.77 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 14:10 输完。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:按温特公式,预期 PaCO₂ 为 33–37 mmHg,所以实测 42 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性酸中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: ΔPR = 0.12 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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