感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
外周静脉留置针沿线皮肤发红、疼痛和肿胀。恰当的处理是什么?
A man skips bowel cancer screening because he feels healthy and thinks cancer will not happen to him. Which Health Belief Model concept best explains this?
患者佩戴腕部约束带期间,最重要的评估是什么?
Who should mark the operative site before surgery?
Which patient with diabetes should the nurse see first?
护士应首先将哪位患者上报给快速反应小组?
首次静脉使用一种新抗生素后,最重要的观察是什么?
Which route and site are recommended for the first dose of adrenaline (epinephrine) in anaphylaxis on a ward?
A patient has a hot, swollen big toe. The serum uric acid is normal. Which statement is correct?
A patient has fatigue, weight loss, darkening of the skin and low blood pressure. Results: sodium 130 mEq/L, potassium 5.6 mEq/L. Which test pattern would confirm primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison disease)?
Which signs suggest early lithium toxicity?
A patient receiving cisplatin is given large volumes of IV fluid before and after each dose. What is the main purpose?
A patient's blood pressure is high in clinic but normal on home readings. Which step best confirms the diagnosis?
A patient with end-stage COPD has severe breathlessness at rest despite optimal treatment and wants comfort-focused care. Which measure is recognised to help?
甲状腺手术一周后,一名患者的声音仍然嘶哑无力。最可能的并发症是什么?
Graves 病患者术后体温 39.8 °C,心率 160 次/分,躁动并呕吐。哪一组治疗最恰当?
Which statement correctly describes physical dependence on opioids?
An 80-year-old has a fluid balance 3 L positive two days after surgery. They are now breathless, with crackles at both lung bases and swollen ankles. What should the nurse do?
A woman says she uses cannabis daily to manage nausea in pregnancy. What is the best nursing response?
A woman at 30 weeks is in a minor car accident. She feels fine and has no bleeding. What should the nurse advise?
A family has a 2-year-old. Which advice about medicines at home is best?
腹泻婴儿的哪项表现提示脱水最严重?
What is the PHQ-9 used for?
A patient on daily methadone maintenance has had abdominal surgery. Which statement about his pain management is correct?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 102.4 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了¾ 杯 / 茶, 1½ tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 2 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一支肾上腺素安瓿标示为 1:1000(1 mg/mL)。医嘱为 0.5 mg 肌内注射(IM),用于严重过敏反应。你应抽取多少体积 V?
一名患者体重 162.8 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 0.5 mg/kg,储备液为 1 mL 中含 50 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V?
医嘱要求以 60 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 500 mL。医嘱为每分钟 1 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 101 kg 的患者推注肝素 70 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 400 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 30 mL/h 输注。患者体重 84 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 08:15 开始用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 12:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 97%吸室内空气,血压 124/74 mmHg,脉搏 130 次/分,清醒,体温 36.6 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 61 kg,身高 180 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.49,PaCO₂ 47 mmHg (6.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 40% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 50 mmHg (6.7 kPa),PaCO₂ 49 mmHg (6.5 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
答案: B · 拔除留置针并记录,如仍需要则另选部位重新置管
静脉炎是静脉的炎症。应拔除留置针,记录并观察该部位,只有在仍需要时才在别处重新置管。
答案: C · Low perceived susceptibility
In the Health Belief Model, people act when they believe they are susceptible to a serious condition and that action will help. Low perceived susceptibility reduces the chance of screening.
答案: D · 约束带远端的血液循环、感觉和皮肤
应经常检查被约束患者的血液循环、感觉、皮肤状况、舒适度、液体摄入和如厕情况,并根据规定定期松开约束带让患者活动。
答案: C · The person who will perform the procedure, with the patient involved where possible
Under the Universal Protocol, the site is marked by the person performing the procedure, or an authorized delegate, ideally while the patient is awake and can confirm it. This helps prevent wrong-site surgery.
答案: C · Glucose 48 mg/dL (2.7 mmol/L), sweating and confused
Severe hypoglycemia with confusion can quickly lead to seizures and loss of consciousness. The other patients have problems that matter but are not immediately dangerous.
答案: B · 一名尿路感染患者,新出现意识模糊,呼吸频率 26 次/分,收缩压 94 mmHg
感染患者新出现意识模糊、呼吸频率 22 次/分或以上、收缩压 100 mmHg 或以下(qSOFA 标准),提示可能的脓毒症,恶化风险高。该患者需要紧急上报、培养和早期使用抗生素。NEWS2 等早期预警评分也给出同样的信号。其他患者是稳定的。
答案: B · 过敏反应的征象,如皮疹、哮鸣或肿胀
首剂有发生过敏性休克的风险。注意皮疹、荨麻疹、肿胀、哮鸣、气促和血压下降。
答案: D · Intramuscular injection into the anterolateral thigh
IM adrenaline into the outer thigh is absorbed quickly and is the first-line route. IV adrenaline is reserved for experienced specialists with full monitoring because of the risk of arrhythmias.
答案: A · Gout is still possible, as urate can be normal in an attack
Serum urate can be normal or even low during an acute gout attack. The definitive test is joint aspiration showing needle-shaped urate crystals, which also helps rule out septic arthritis.核对依据: Gout · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Synovial Fluid Analysis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · Low cortisol with a high ACTH
In primary adrenal insufficiency the adrenal glands fail, so cortisol is low and the pituitary responds with high ACTH, which also darkens the skin. Low cortisol with low ACTH suggests a pituitary cause. An ACTH stimulation test confirms the diagnosis.核对依据: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023); Cortisol Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: C · Diarrhoea, vomiting, coarse tremor and drowsiness
Early lithium toxicity causes GI upset, a coarse tremor, sluggishness and unsteadiness. Higher levels cause confusion, seizures and arrhythmias, so the drug is held and the level checked.
答案: A · To reduce kidney damage
Cisplatin is nephrotoxic, and hydration helps protect the kidneys. It also causes ototoxicity, peripheral neuropathy, severe nausea and low magnesium.
答案: A · Ambulatory or structured home blood pressure monitoring
"White-coat" hypertension means raised readings only in clinical settings. Ambulatory monitoring over 24 hours or a structured series of home readings gives a truer picture and is widely recommended before diagnosing hypertension.
答案: A · A low-dose opioid with a hand-held fan and calm positioning
Low-dose oral opioids can ease refractory breathlessness in advanced disease. A fan blowing air across the face, upright positioning, breathing techniques and anxiety management also help. Oxygen is used only if it relieves symptoms or corrects hypoxaemia.
答案: B · 喉返神经损伤
喉返神经紧邻甲状腺走行,支配大部分喉肌。损伤会引起声音嘶哑;双侧损伤可引起喘鸣和气道梗阻。插管引起的轻度声音嘶哑通常几天内好转。甲状旁腺损伤引起低钙血症,伴麻木和痉挛。
答案: C · 降温、β 受体阻滞剂、抗甲状腺药物,然后用碘和类固醇
甲状腺危象危及生命。治疗包括支持治疗和降温、用 β 受体阻滞剂控制肾上腺素能症状、用硫脲类药物(常为丙硫氧嘧啶)阻断合成、在硫脲类之后给予碘以阻断激素释放,以及皮质类固醇。避免使用阿司匹林,因为它会增加游离甲状腺激素。
答案: A · Withdrawal occurs if the drug is stopped suddenly
Physical dependence is a predictable adaptation to regular opioids, causing withdrawal if they stop suddenly, so doses are tapered. Addiction is a behavioural condition with craving, loss of control and continued use despite harm.
答案: D · Stop the IV fluids, sit the patient up and escalate
Older patients and those with heart or kidney disease can develop fluid overload. The nurse stops fluids, sits the patient up, gives oxygen if needed and asks for medical review, often for diuretics.
答案: C · Explain the risks without judgement and offer safer treatments
Cannabis in pregnancy is associated with low birth weight and possible effects on brain development. The nurse discusses the risks without judgement, offers safer antiemetics and support and continues care.
答案: A · Come in for fetal monitoring even without symptoms
Even minor trauma can cause placental abruption, sometimes without bleeding. Pregnant women after trauma are usually monitored with CTG for several hours. Rh-negative women may need anti-D.
答案: C · Lock all medicines away, out of reach and sight, in child-resistant containers
Toddlers explore by climbing and putting things in their mouths. Medicines should be locked away and put back immediately after use. Calling medicine sweets encourages children to take it on their own.
答案: A · 嗜睡、毛细血管再充盈时间 4 秒,10 小时没有湿尿布
意识水平下降、毛细血管再充盈时间延长和无尿提示重度脱水和可能的休克。这需要紧急治疗,通常是静脉补液。
答案: A · Screening for depression and measuring its severity
The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 asks how often each of the nine depression symptoms has occurred in the last 2 weeks. Item 9 asks about thoughts of self-harm, which always needs follow-up.
答案: B · His usual methadone should continue, and additional analgesia is usually needed for acute pain
Maintenance methadone prevents withdrawal but does not treat acute pain. Patients with opioid tolerance often need more analgesia than usual. Withholding pain relief is unsafe and unethical.
答案: T = 39.1 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: V = 212.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 0.5 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 0.74 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 60 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: R = 30 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 1.4 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 9.5 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1460 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 800 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 2
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 健康体重
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 173.9 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
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