感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
护理程序的评价阶段做什么?
A patient with severe anaemia has an SpO₂ of 98%. Why can this reading be misleading?
护理采取空气传播预防的患者后,N95 呼吸器应在何时摘下?
A nurse calculates a child’s prescribed dose and finds it is ten times higher than the usual dose for the child’s weight. What should the nurse do?
A nurse teaches a patient about levothyroxine. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名上消化道出血的患者心率 128 次/分,血压 84/50 mmHg。以下都有医嘱。护士首先开始哪一项?
Which side effect is common when a patient starts taking metformin?
一名头部外伤患者出现血压升高、心率减慢和呼吸不规则。这提示:
A patient's eGFR has fallen to 24 mL/min/1.73 m². Which prescribed drug should the nurse question before giving it?
收到四项实验室结果。护士应首先处理哪一项?
A woman taking the combined pill should seek care urgently for which symptom?
可待因由 CYP2D6 转化为吗啡。在 CYP2D6 超快代谢者身上会发生什么?
A patient with bronchiectasis of the right lower lobe is taught postural drainage. How should they be positioned?
A nurse reviews inhaler use with a patient who has asthma and uses a separate steroid preventer inhaler and a salbutamol reliever. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which CSF result is most typical of bacterial meningitis?
A patient with a subarachnoid haemorrhage develops a low sodium. Why is fluid restriction usually avoided in this patient?
A patient with obstructive sleep apnoea is admitted for surgery. Which instruction is most appropriate?
对于循环不良患者足跟上稳定、干燥、完整的黑色焦痂,通常推荐哪种处理?
Which statement about the lactational amenorrhoea method (LAM) is correct?
A woman with a previous caesarean is having a trial of labour. Which induction agent should the nurse question?
When is the best time to tell a 2-year-old about an upcoming procedure?
A 6-year-old has threadworms. Which plan is correct?
A patient with psychosis says, "There's a man standing in the corner." The nurse sees no one there. Which response uses presenting reality?
一名神经性贪食患者的血清钾为 2.8 mmol/L。主要担忧是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 96.6 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 19:00 开始,到次日早晨 05:15 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
某患者体重 22 kg。医嘱剂量为每天 25 mg/kg,分 2 次等量给药。每次给多少毫克 D?
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 20000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 800 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1500 mL。6 小时后你发现袋中还剩 660 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1000 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 380 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 107 kg 的患者推注肝素 80 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 86 kg 的患者的医嘱为norepinephrine 4 mcg/min。输液袋中含 8 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 09:00 开始以 75 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 200 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 8 次/分,SpO₂ 98%正在补充吸氧,血压 100/60 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 38.1 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 30 次/分,SpO₂ 97%正在补充吸氧,血压 96/58 mmHg,脉搏 132 次/分,清醒,体温 36.2 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.64,PaCO₂ 23 mmHg (3.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 43 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: B · 护士检查目标是否已达成,并调整计划
评价将患者的结局与计划的目标进行比较。如果目标未达成,护士重新评估并修改护理计划。
答案: D · The red cells present are saturated, but the blood carries little oxygen
SpO₂ shows the percentage of haemoglobin that carries oxygen, not how much haemoglobin there is. With very little haemoglobin the oxygen content of the blood can be low despite a normal saturation.
答案: D · 离开房间并关上门之后
因为传染性颗粒仍留在房间的空气中,所以应在房门关闭后到房间外摘下呼吸器,随后进行手卫生。手套、护目装备和隔离衣应先脱下。
答案: A · Hold the dose and verify it with the prescriber and pharmacist
Tenfold errors are common in pediatrics, usually from decimal or unit mistakes. The nurse holds the dose and clarifies it, and never changes the dose on their own.
答案: A · “I will take it at breakfast with my calcium tablet.”
Levothyroxine is best absorbed on an empty stomach and is separated from calcium and iron by several hours. It is usually lifelong, so it is not stopped when the patient feels better.
答案: A · 通过大口径套管静脉输液或输血
心动过速和低血压显示低血容量性休克,因此首先恢复循环血容量,按医嘱使用液体或血制品并密切监测。抑酸和内镜检查在复苏进行之后,口服铁剂属于后期恢复。
答案: D · Nausea, abdominal discomfort or diarrhoea
Gastrointestinal upset is common at the start, so metformin is started at a low dose with food and increased gradually. It rarely causes hypoglycaemia when used alone.
答案: B · 颅内压增高(库欣三联征)
库欣三联征(高血压伴脉压增大、心动过缓和呼吸不规则)是颅内压增高的晚期征象,需要紧急处理。
答案: A · Metformin
Metformin is cleared by the kidneys, and it is contraindicated when the eGFR is below 30 mL/min/1.73 m² because of the risk of lactic acidosis. Insulin doses may also need adjustment, but insulin is not contraindicated.
答案: B · 一名 CKD 患者钾 6.6 mEq/L,新出现肌无力
钾 6.6 mEq/L 伴肌无力可引起危及生命的心律失常。护士应立即安排心电监护并通知医疗人员。CKD 的轻度贫血和餐后血糖轻度升高是预期的;钠正常。核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · A painful, swollen calf or sudden chest pain
Combined hormonal contraception increases the risk of venous thromboembolism and, rarely, stroke. Leg pain or swelling, chest pain, breathlessness, severe headache or vision changes need urgent assessment.
答案: B · 生成更多吗啡,增加阿片类药物中毒风险
超快代谢者把更多可待因转化为吗啡,可能引起呼吸抑制。慢代谢者生成的吗啡很少,镇痛效果差。这是药物遗传学的经典例子。
答案: B · With the affected lobe uppermost so gravity drains it
Postural drainage places the patient so the affected segment is above the main bronchus, letting gravity move secretions towards the larger airways to be coughed up. It is combined with breathing techniques. Head-down positions are avoided in patients with reflux, recent surgery or breathlessness.
答案: C · "I use my steroid inhaler when I start to wheeze."
Inhaled corticosteroids are preventers that reduce airway inflammation over days to weeks and must be taken regularly. They do not relieve an acute wheeze. Unless the patient has a combined reliever and maintenance regimen, a short-acting bronchodilator is used for symptoms.
答案: C · Cloudy fluid, many neutrophils, low glucose and high protein
Bacterial meningitis usually gives turbid CSF with raised neutrophils and protein and low glucose. Viral meningitis typically shows clear fluid with lymphocytes and normal glucose.
答案: B · Low blood volume can worsen vasospasm and brain ischaemia
Hyponatraemia after subarachnoid haemorrhage may come from SIADH or cerebral salt wasting. Restricting fluid can cause hypovolaemia, which makes delayed cerebral ischaemia more likely. Sodium is usually corrected with fluids or salt under specialist advice.
答案: A · Bring their CPAP machine to use after surgery
OSA increases the risk of airway obstruction and respiratory depression after anaesthesia, especially with opioids. Using CPAP, careful opioid use, sitting up and close monitoring reduce this risk.
答案: C · 保持完整,足跟减压并转诊评估
缺血足跟上稳定、干燥的焦痂起着生物屏障的作用,通常不应清创。应给足跟减压并评估循环。如果它变软、松软、发红或渗液,应怀疑感染并寻求专科评估。
答案: D · It needs full breastfeeding, no periods and a baby under 6 months
LAM is effective only if the mother is fully or nearly fully breastfeeding day and night, her periods have not returned and the baby is under 6 months. Ovulation can occur before the first period.
答案: B · Misoprostol
Misoprostol is avoided in women with a uterine scar because of a high risk of uterine rupture. Mechanical methods, amniotomy and carefully monitored oxytocin may be used.
答案: A · Just before it happens, in simple, concrete words
Toddlers do not understand future time, so preparation long in advance only creates anxiety. A short, honest explanation immediately before, with a parent present and a comfort object, works best.
答案: D · Treat the whole household, with hand washing, short nails and a morning wash
Threadworm eggs spread easily within households, so all members are usually treated at the same time. Hygiene measures break the cycle of reinfection; exclusion from school is not needed.
答案: D · "I don't see anyone in the corner, but I know it seems real to you."
Presenting reality calmly states the nurse's own perception while accepting that the experience feels real to the patient. It neither confirms the hallucination nor argues with the patient.
答案: C · 有发生危及生命的心律失常的风险
反复呕吐会导致低钾血症和代谢性碱中毒。钾 2.8 mmol/L 低得危险,可引起心律失常。患者需要心电监护,并按处方补钾。
答案: T = 35.9 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: t = 10.25 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 275 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 20 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 165 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: Δ = 14 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: V = 8.6 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 7.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: B = 335 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 7.5 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 30 min,所以袋子大约在 16:30 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 8
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 未代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: PaCO₂ = 51.1 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 室性心动过速
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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