感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient is found on the floor beside the bed. What should the nurse do first?
Which postoperative finding should be reported most urgently?
Which room lighting is safest at night for a patient at high risk of falls?
A patient on airborne precautions for tuberculosis wants to walk in the hallway. What is the best response?
A patient with type 1 diabetes has vomited since morning and cannot eat. Which action is most important?
During an infusion of a thrombolytic drug for stroke, the patient develops a severe headache and starts vomiting. What should the nurse do first?
A patient on the ward has shingles with open blisters. Which people are most at risk from contact?
A patient with metastatic breast cancer is confused and constipated, with a corrected calcium of 3.3 mmol/L (about 13.2 mg/dL). What is usually the first treatment?
A patient is starting dabigatran, a direct oral anticoagulant. Which laboratory test is most important to review before the first dose?
Three days after starting haloperidol, a patient has a temperature of 40 °C, severe muscle rigidity and confusion. Which laboratory result would the nurse expect?
A patient is starting olanzapine. Which monitoring is most important over the following months?
A patient with heart failure starts taking naproxen regularly for back pain. Why is this a concern?
Rheumatic heart disease most often follows which infection?
经桡动脉心导管检查术后,最重要的评估是什么?
A patient with atrial fibrillation has had an ischaemic stroke. Which long-term medicine type most reduces the risk of another stroke?
对使用甘露醇治疗颅内压升高的患者,哪项护理很重要?
Which early symptoms suggest local anaesthetic systemic toxicity?
After a coughing fit, the external mark on a patient's nasogastric tube has moved 10 cm. Feed is due. What should the nurse do?
Which is a common sign of iron deficiency anaemia in pregnancy?
A deceleration lasts 3 minutes before the baseline recovers. How is this classified?
Which nursing action is correct for a newborn receiving phototherapy?
一名 6 岁儿童在扁桃体切除术后被开具可待因止痛。护士应怎么做?
A young person who took LSD at a festival is frightened by what he is seeing. What is the most helpful nursing approach?
A patient who takes fluoxetine in the evening says he has had trouble falling asleep since starting it. What should the nurse suggest?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 3:50 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 21:25 开始,到次日早晨 01:55 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
某患者体重 15 kg,医嘱为单次给药 20 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一袋输液在 1000 mL 中含 50000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 2000 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 12 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 12 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 98 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含dobutamine 250 mg,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 5 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 65 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 07:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 93%正在补充吸氧,血压 222/134 mmHg,脉搏 110 次/分,清醒,体温 35.5 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 32 次/分,SpO₂ 91%正在补充吸氧,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 37.7 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.33,PaCO₂ 55 mmHg (7.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 28 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.32,PaCO₂ 36 mmHg (4.8 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 18 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · Check responsiveness and look for injuries before moving them
The nurse first calls for help and assesses the patient, including for head and hip injury. The patient is moved only when safe, using proper equipment, and the doctor is informed.
答案: B · Respiratory rate 8/min and difficult to rouse
A low respiratory rate with reduced consciousness may mean opioid toxicity or deterioration and threatens the airway. The other findings are common after surgery and can be managed routinely.
答案: D · A low night light that lights the path to the bathroom
A night light lets the patient see obstacles and the way to the bathroom without disturbing sleep. Many falls happen in the dark on the way to the toilet.
答案: D · Explain that they must stay in the room, and offer ways to stay active inside it
Patients on airborne precautions stay in the negative-pressure room with the door closed, leaving only for essential tests while wearing a surgical mask. The nurse explains why and helps the patient cope with confinement.
答案: C · Check the blood glucose and ketones and contact the provider
Vomiting in type 1 diabetes can lead quickly to diabetic ketoacidosis. Glucose and ketones are checked and the provider is contacted; insulin is usually not stopped completely during illness.
答案: D · Stop the infusion and inform the provider at once
A new severe headache, vomiting or neurological decline during thrombolysis can mean intracranial bleeding. The infusion is stopped, the provider informed and an urgent scan arranged.
答案: C · Pregnant women and immunocompromised people who have not had chickenpox
Someone who has never had chickenpox can catch chickenpox from contact with shingles blisters. Non-immune pregnant and immunocompromised people are at particular risk, so lesions are covered and precautions followed.
答案: D · IV fluid rehydration, followed by a bisphosphonate
Hypercalcaemia of malignancy causes dehydration, so IV fluids are given first, followed by a bisphosphonate to reduce bone resorption. Calcium, renal function and fluid balance are monitored.
答案: A · Kidney function (creatinine clearance)
Dabigatran is excreted mainly by the kidneys, so poor kidney function raises the drug level and bleeding risk. Kidney function is checked before starting and regularly afterwards. Routine INR monitoring is not used for direct oral anticoagulants.核对依据: Dabigatran · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · A very high creatine kinase (CK)
These signs suggest neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a medical emergency. Muscle rigidity releases CK, often to very high levels, and the white count is often raised. Myoglobin can damage the kidneys. The antipsychotic is stopped and supportive care is started.
答案: A · Weight, blood glucose and blood lipids
Olanzapine and several other atypical antipsychotics cause weight gain, insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia. Weight, waist size, glucose and lipids are checked regularly.
答案: A · NSAIDs cause salt and water retention and can worsen heart failure
NSAIDs inhibit renal prostaglandins, causing sodium and water retention and reducing the effect of diuretics. They can trigger decompensation of heart failure and are usually avoided.
答案: A · A group A streptococcal throat infection
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune reaction weeks after group A streptococcal pharyngitis. It can permanently damage heart valves, most often the mitral valve. Prompt antibiotic treatment of strep throat prevents it.
答案: D · 手部的血液循环、感觉和活动,以及穿刺部位
桡动脉入路后,应检查压迫装置和穿刺部位有无出血或血肿,并检查手部的颜色、温度、毛细血管再充盈、感觉和活动。桡动脉闭塞和前臂骨筋膜室综合征是可能的并发症。
答案: A · An oral anticoagulant
In AF the main cause of stroke is a clot from the left atrium. Oral anticoagulants such as a DOAC or warfarin prevent this far better than antiplatelets. The start date after a stroke depends on its size and bleeding risk.
答案: B · 密切监测尿量、血钠和渗透压
甘露醇把水从脑内拉入血液,并由肾脏排泄,引起大量利尿。需要监测脱水、低血压、电解质紊乱和高渗透压,通常需要留置导尿管。
答案: D · Tingling around the mouth, a metallic taste and tinnitus
High blood levels of local anaesthetic first cause CNS symptoms such as perioral tingling, metallic taste, tinnitus, light-headedness and confusion, then seizures and arrhythmias. The injection is stopped and help is called at once.
答案: D · Do not use the tube until its position is confirmed by policy
A change in external length means the tube may have moved. Pushing it back blindly is unsafe. It is not used until placement is confirmed by pH or X-ray, or it is replaced.
答案: A · Tiredness, pallor and breathlessness
Iron deficiency causes fatigue, pallor, breathlessness, palpitations and sometimes pica. A full blood count and ferritin confirm the diagnosis.
答案: C · A prolonged deceleration
A prolonged deceleration lasts at least 2 minutes but less than 10. A decrease of 10 minutes or more is a baseline change. The cause, such as hypotension or tachysystole, should be found and corrected.
答案: C · Cover the eyes, expose as much skin as possible and monitor temperature and hydration
Phototherapy works on bilirubin in the skin, so maximal skin should be exposed while the eyes are shielded. Babies can lose extra fluid and become too warm or cold, so temperature, hydration and feeding are monitored; lotions can cause burns.
答案: C · 给药前向开医嘱者质疑该医嘱
12 岁以下儿童,以及 18 岁以下儿童在扁桃体或腺样体切除术后,禁用可待因,因为超快代谢者会发生致命的呼吸抑制。护士应对该医嘱提出质疑。
答案: A · Stay with him in a calm, quiet place and reassure him that the effects are from the drug and will pass
For a frightening hallucinogen experience, a calm setting, a supportive person and simple reassurance usually help. The nurse also monitors vital signs and watches for injury or other substances.
答案: C · Discuss with the prescriber whether he can take it in the morning instead
Fluoxetine can be activating and cause insomnia. Taking it in the morning, with the prescriber's agreement, often helps. Stopping suddenly or using alcohol is unsafe.
答案: 03:50
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 4.5 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 300 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 40 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 31 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:31 滴/分。
答案: D = 48 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 14.7 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 19.5 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 290 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 5.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 13:10 输完。
答案: NEWS2 = 9
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 高
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
答案: 部分代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心室颤动
室性节律:室性心动过速是连续三个或以上宽大(0.12 s 或以上)的波群,频率超过 100 次/分,通常为 150–250 次/分,节律规则,没有相关的 P 波。心室颤动是紊乱、不规则的波形,无法辨认 P 波、QRS 波群或 T 波,也没有可计数的频率。心脏停搏是几乎平直的线,没有心室活动;平直线一定要通过检查患者、导联和增益并换一个导联来确认。在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律,心脏停搏则不是。
在复苏指南中,室颤和无脉性室速是可电击心律。这里只是识别练习。
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