感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What is the main purpose of a wound drain after surgery?
Which feature suggests that a sore area is a moisture lesion rather than a pressure ulcer?
A patient has a non-violent restraint. In most nursing policies, how often at minimum is it released for range of motion, toileting and skin care?
Several patients arrive with suspected inhalational anthrax after a deliberate release. Which precautions are needed for their care?
A patient is receiving a blood transfusion. Which task can the nurse delegate to a nursing assistant?
A patient has a heart rate of 38/min, feels dizzy and has a blood pressure of 80/50 mmHg. Which drug is usually given first, as prescribed?
Which group of symptoms suggests hypothyroidism?
An older man has sudden severe abdominal and back pain, is hypotensive and has a pulsating mass in the abdomen. What should be suspected?
一名服用华法林的患者开始每天大量食用羽衣甘蓝和菠菜。INR 已下降。哪项建议最恰当?
A patient has taken metformin for 8 years and now has numbness in the feet, a hemoglobin of 10.2 g/dL (102 g/L) and an MCV of 108 fL. Which deficiency is most likely?
A patient is starting doxazosin, an alpha-1 blocker. What should the nurse advise about the first dose?
A patient has received a sodium nitroprusside infusion for several days. He becomes confused and develops a metabolic acidosis. What should be suspected?
A patient on home oxygen has dry, sore lips. Which product is safest to use?
A nurse is reviewing four telemetry patients. Which rhythm needs attention first?
Why might a patient taking a beta-blocker not notice a hypoglycaemic episode?
Six weeks after a kidney transplant, a patient has a fever, tenderness over the graft, less urine and a rising creatinine. What is most likely?
Which nerve is at risk if the arm is poorly padded at the elbow during surgery?
On the ward after surgery, a patient has a red, blistered area of skin under where the diathermy plate was. What should the nurse do?
产后第 6 天预期出现哪种恶露?
A deceleration lasts 3 minutes before the baseline recovers. How is this classified?
If the MMR and varicella vaccines are not given on the same day, what is the general rule?
During an insulin infusion for diabetic ketoacidosis, why is potassium monitored closely?
A patient who is detained under mental health legislation does not return from escorted leave. What should the nurse do?
再喂养的第三天,一名严重神经性厌食患者出现踝部肿胀、低磷血症和脉搏不规则。最可能的是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 13:20(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 17:05 开始,到次日早晨 08:10 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
某患者体重 80 kg,医嘱为单次给药 10 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 12.5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 250 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 10 小时内输入 500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一组输液以 20 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 89 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 400 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 19 mL/h 输注。患者体重 101 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 12:00 开始以 100 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 虚弱; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名练习用新生儿出生后 1 分钟时:全身皮肤青紫或苍白,心率 170 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,四肢略有屈曲,无呼吸。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.37,PaCO₂ 65 mmHg (8.7 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 36 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.21,PaCO₂ 39 mmHg (5.2 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 15 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,心室节律不规则。使用 6 秒法求出心室率(单位:次/分)。
答案: B · To remove fluid or blood that could collect and delay healing
Drains let blood, serous fluid or pus escape, preventing collections such as seromas and haematomas. The nurse records the amount and type of drainage.
答案: C · Diffuse, irregular redness in a skin fold, not over a bone
Moisture lesions are usually superficial, diffuse and irregular, often in the natal cleft or skin folds. Pressure ulcers are typically over bony prominences and may have necrotic tissue.
答案: A · At least every 2 hours
Restrained patients are checked often for circulation, skin and comfort, and the restraint is released at least every 2 hours for movement, toileting, fluids and skin care. Exact intervals follow the facility’s policy.
答案: C · Standard precautions, because it is not spread from person to person
Inhalational anthrax is caught by breathing in spores from the environment and does not spread from person to person, so standard precautions are enough. Decontamination may still be needed for people with spores on their skin or clothing.
答案: C · Measuring and reporting vital signs at the times set by the nurse
An assistant can measure vital signs and report them. Assessing for a reaction, starting the transfusion and deciding to stop it need the nurse’s judgement.
答案: D · Atropine
Atropine is the first-line drug for symptomatic bradycardia. Metoprolol, digoxin and diltiazem slow the heart and would make things worse; pacing may be needed if atropine does not work.
答案: D · Tiredness, weight gain and feeling cold
Low thyroid hormone slows metabolism, causing fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin and bradycardia. Weight loss, heat intolerance and tremor suggest hyperthyroidism.
答案: B · A ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm
A ruptured AAA classically presents with pain, shock and a pulsatile mass. It is a surgical emergency needing immediate senior help and transfer to theatre.
答案: B · 保持富含维生素 K 的食物摄入量每天稳定
维生素 K 拮抗华法林,因此叶类蔬菜大量增加会使 INR 降低。患者不必避免这些食物,但应保持摄入量一致,以便正确设定剂量。核对依据: Warfarin · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Taking warfarin · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · Vitamin B12 deficiency
Long-term metformin reduces vitamin B12 absorption in the gut. B12 deficiency causes macrocytic anemia and peripheral neuropathy, which can be mistaken for diabetic neuropathy. Periodic B12 testing is recommended for long-term users.核对依据: Vitamin B Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: A · Take it at bedtime, because it can cause dizziness and fainting
Alpha-1 blockers dilate blood vessels and can cause marked orthostatic hypotension after the first dose. Taking it at bedtime and rising slowly reduces the risk of falls.
答案: C · Cyanide toxicity from nitroprusside breakdown
Nitroprusside releases cyanide, which is normally converted to thiocyanate. With high doses, long infusions or poor organ function, cyanide and thiocyanate can accumulate; the infusion is also protected from light.
答案: D · A water-based lubricant
Oil-based products such as petroleum jelly can ignite or burn intensely in high oxygen concentrations and have caused facial burns. Water-based products are recommended. Oxygen cylinders are kept upright and secured, away from heat and flames.
答案: C · Repeated runs of ventricular tachycardia in a patient who feels dizzy
Symptomatic runs of VT can degenerate into VF or pulseless VT and need immediate assessment, electrolytes and treatment. Sinus bradycardia during sleep, controlled AF and first-degree heart block with stable observations are usually not urgent.
答案: B · Beta-blockers can mask the tremor and racing heart of a hypo
Beta-blockers blunt adrenergic warning symptoms such as palpitations and tremor. Sweating is often preserved. Patients should check their glucose when they feel unwell, rather than relying on symptoms alone.
答案: D · Acute rejection, needing urgent transplant team review
Fever, graft tenderness, falling urine output and rising creatinine suggest acute rejection, although infection must also be ruled out. Early treatment, often with high-dose steroids, can save the graft, so the transplant team is contacted urgently.
答案: A · Ulnar nerve
The ulnar nerve runs superficially at the elbow and is a common site of positioning injury. Careful padding and avoiding pressure on the elbow help prevent numbness and weakness of the hand.
答案: C · Treat it as a possible burn, report it and complete an incident form
A blister under the return electrode suggests a diathermy burn. The nurse assesses and dresses it, informs the team, and reports it as an incident so that the cause can be investigated.
答案: D · 粉红至棕色分泌物(浆液性恶露)
浆液性恶露预期出现在约第 4 天至第 10 天。大血块或重新出现大量鲜红色出血提示组织残留或子宫复旧不全;恶臭提示感染。
答案: C · A prolonged deceleration
A prolonged deceleration lasts at least 2 minutes but less than 10. A decrease of 10 minutes or more is a baseline change. The cause, such as hypotension or tachysystole, should be found and corrected.
答案: C · Separate them by at least 4 weeks
Two live injected vaccines are given either on the same day or at least 4 weeks apart. A shorter gap can reduce the immune response to the second vaccine.
答案: C · Insulin moves potassium into the cells, so blood potassium can fall sharply
Total body potassium is low in DKA, though blood levels may look normal at first. Insulin and correction of acidosis drive potassium into cells, risking hypokalaemia and arrhythmias, so potassium is added to fluids and checked often.
答案: A · Start the missing patient procedure at once, informing the team and, if required, the police
A detained patient who is absent without leave may be a risk to themselves or others. Missing patient procedures are started immediately, including a risk assessment and informing the responsible clinician and relevant authorities.
答案: C · 再喂养综合征
饥饿后再喂养引起胰岛素释放,使磷、钾和镁进入细胞内,导致心力衰竭、水肿、心律失常和意识模糊。应密切监测并补充电解质,并逐渐增加喂养量。
答案: 1:20 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 15.08 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 800 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 2 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 17 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:17 滴/分。
答案: t = 5.6 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 5.3 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1630 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 17:40 输完。
答案: MFS = 40
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中度异常
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
答案: 合并呼吸性酸中毒
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 一度房室传导阻滞
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 心室率 = 60 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
二度 II 型:每 3 个 QRS 波群对应 4 个 P 波,PR 恒定。
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