感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
When opening a sterile pack on a table, which flap is opened first?
A small fire starts in a patient's room. What is the first action?
A patient has received oral radioactive iodine therapy. Which precaution is usually taken?
一名水痘患儿入院。由哪位工作人员护理该患儿最合适?
A nursing assistant tells the RN that a patient’s IV pump is alarming. What is the best response?
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 24 次,有桡动脉搏动,但不能遵从简单指令。该伤员被归入哪一类?
After a total hip replacement through a posterior approach, which movement should the patient usually avoid in the early weeks?
Why is a patient kept under observation for several hours after successful treatment of anaphylaxis?
Which finding during a transfusion suggests transfusion-associated circulatory overload (TACO)?
Four results arrive at the same time. Which patient should the nurse see first?
ACE 抑制剂如何降低血压?
A patient taking long-term hydroxychloroquine for lupus is advised to have regular eye examinations. Why?
为什么右心室梗死时使用硝酸酯类要格外谨慎?
A nurse teaches a patient who has a new permanent pacemaker. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名卒中患者能听懂别人说的话,但很难找到词语,说话简短而吃力。这是哪种失语?
A patient with myasthenia gravis is admitted with pneumonia. Which newly prescribed antibiotic should the nurse question?
Which advice is appropriate for a patient with a very low platelet count?
Two days after surgery, a patient on regular ibuprofen has a low urine output and a rising creatinine, and intake has been poor. What should the nurse do?
A woman 4 hours after birth has severe perineal pain and pressure. Her fundus is firm, lochia is normal, and her heart rate is rising. What should the nurse suspect?
产后 6 小时,一名女性尚未排尿。宫底松软并偏向右侧,出血增加。为什么这是优先事项?
Which signs suggest digoxin toxicity in a child?
Which long-term problems should be monitored in a child with a repaired cleft palate?
A patient in a manic episode makes repeated sexual comments to a nurse. What is the most appropriate response?
A patient who was admitted after a serious suicide attempt says, "I'm angry they saved me. Next time I'll do it properly." What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 13:25(24 小时制)。哪个条目是 12 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:15 开始,到次日早晨 00:30 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一名体重 23 kg 的儿童按 10 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 133 cm,体重 33 kg。医嘱为 250 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋中含有 1 g 药物,溶于 250 mL。医嘱为每分钟 3 mg。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 95 kg 的患者推注肝素 60 units/kg。药瓶规格为 1 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dopamine 800 mg、容量 500 mL 的输液以 32 mL/h 输注。患者体重 105 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 100 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 10:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 100 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 充足; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 18 次/分,SpO₂ 89%吸室内空气,血压 130/78 mmHg,脉搏 76 次/分,清醒,体温 36.4 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 10 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 136,Cl⁻ 103,HCO₃⁻ 17 mmol/L,白蛋白 34 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。测量扑动波间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分)。
这条 II 导联心电图显示二度房室传导阻滞 I 型(文氏现象)。从一组的第一个搏动到第二个搏动,PR 间期增加了多少(ΔPR),以秒为单位?
答案: C · The flap furthest away from you
Opening the far flap first means the nurse never reaches across the exposed sterile contents. The side flaps follow, and the nearest flap is opened last.
答案: D · Move the patient away from immediate danger
The first priority is to rescue anyone in immediate danger, then raise the alarm, contain the fire by closing doors and only then try to extinguish it if safe. Opening windows feeds a fire with oxygen.
答案: A · Limit time close to the patient and handle body fluids per radiation policy
Radioactive iodine is excreted in urine, sweat and saliva, so the patient is usually in a private room with their own bathroom. Staff limit time near them, use distance and follow policy for body fluids and waste.
答案: B · 有书面记录证明对水痘有免疫力的护士
应由免疫状况确凿(来自接种疫苗或既往感染)的工作人员护理水痘患者。无免疫力的工作人员,尤其是孕期工作人员,有感染风险,并可能把病毒传给其他患者。
答案: A · “I will come and check the pump and the IV site now.”
An alarm may mean an occlusion, air in the line or infiltration. The nurse checks the pump and site; the assistant should not adjust the pump or silence alarms.
答案: D · 红色(立即)
未通过意识状态检查(不能遵从简单指令)的伤员为立即,即使呼吸和灌注可以接受。这可能提示头部损伤或休克。
答案: B · Bending the hip beyond 90 degrees or crossing the legs
Hip flexion past 90°, crossing the legs and turning the leg inwards can dislocate the hip after a posterior approach. Raised seats and toilet seats help, although specific precautions vary between units.
答案: A · Symptoms can return later in a biphasic reaction
Some patients have a second wave of symptoms hours after the first, called a biphasic reaction. Observation, an adrenaline auto-injector where indicated and allergy referral are part of safe discharge.
答案: B · Crackles, hypertension and a raised BNP
TACO is fluid overload, often in older adults or those with heart or kidney disease. It causes dyspnea, crackles, hypertension, distended neck veins and a raised BNP. The transfusion is stopped, the patient is sat up and diuretics may be prescribed.
答案: B · Glucose 48 mg/dL (2.7 mmol/L) in a patient who had insulin an hour ago
Hypoglycemia after insulin can quickly cause seizures and loss of consciousness, so it is treated first. Mild anemia in CKD is expected, an INR of 2.6 is within the target range, and a slightly raised white count is common after surgery.核对依据: Blood Glucose Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Prothrombin time (PT) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · 阻断血管紧张素 I 转化为血管紧张素 II
ACE 抑制剂(如雷米普利)减少血管紧张素 II,使血管扩张、醛固酮减少。它们还减少缓激肽的降解,这解释了干咳。
答案: C · The drug can cause retinal toxicity that may be permanent
Hydroxychloroquine can damage the retina, and the risk rises with dose and duration. Regular screening allows the drug to be stopped before vision is seriously affected.
答案: C · 右心室依赖前负荷,血压可能急剧下降
右心室梗死时,心输出量在很大程度上依赖静脉充盈。硝酸酯类等静脉扩张药(以及利尿剂或阿片类药物)可导致血压急剧下降。这类患者通常需要谨慎补液。
答案: D · "I will keep my mobile phone in my shirt pocket over the device."
Patients are advised to keep mobile phones at least about 15 cm from the device and to hold them to the opposite ear. They carry a device card, tell staff before MRI or surgery (diathermy) and attend follow-up checks. Normal household appliances are generally safe.
答案: B · 表达性(Broca)失语
表达性失语由额叶 Broca 区受损引起,表现为不流利、费力的言语,理解力相对保留。感受性失语表现为流利但无意义的言语和理解力差。构音障碍是语言功能完整的运动性言语问题。
答案: B · Gentamicin
Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin can impair neuromuscular transmission and trigger a myasthenic crisis. Fluoroquinolones, magnesium and some other drugs carry similar warnings. The nurse checks with the prescriber before giving it.
答案: B · Use a soft toothbrush and an electric razor
With thrombocytopenia, the nurse reduces bleeding risk: soft toothbrush, electric razor, no NSAIDs or aspirin, avoiding IM injections and rectal procedures, and reporting bleeding, bruising or blood in urine or stool.
答案: D · Withhold the next dose and report to the prescriber
NSAIDs can cause acute kidney injury, particularly with hypovolaemia, older age or other nephrotoxic drugs. The nurse withholds and reports, and fluid status and other analgesia are reviewed.
答案: C · A vulvar or vaginal haematoma
A haematoma causes severe pain and pressure out of proportion to the birth, often with a firm uterus and normal lochia. Signs of hidden blood loss such as tachycardia must be reported.
答案: B · 膀胱充盈使子宫无法收缩,并加重出血
膀胱膨胀将子宫向上、向一侧推移,导致子宫收缩乏力和出血增多。协助她排尿,或遵医嘱导尿,然后重新评估宫底和出血情况。
答案: B · Nausea, vomiting, poor feeding and a slow heart rate
Early signs of digoxin toxicity in children include anorexia, nausea, vomiting and bradycardia or other arrhythmias. Low potassium increases the risk of toxicity, so potassium levels are monitored.
答案: A · Middle ear infections, hearing, speech and teeth
Children with cleft palate often have middle ear effusions and hearing loss because of Eustachian tube dysfunction, and may need speech therapy and orthodontic or dental care. A multidisciplinary cleft team follows them through childhood.
答案: A · Calmly say that the comments are not acceptable and redirect him
Disinhibition is common in mania. Clear, calm limit setting and redirection protect both staff and patient and maintain boundaries without punishing him.
答案: A · Maintain close observation, report the statement and reassess the risk with the team
Anger at surviving and stated future intent show high, ongoing risk. Close observation continues, the team reassesses the risk, and the nurse explores his feelings without judging him.
答案: 1:25 PM
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 75 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 9.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: D = 276 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 17 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:17 滴/分。
答案: R = 45 mL/h
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: V = 5.7 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 8.1 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.96 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 5.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 5 h 48 min,所以袋子大约在 15:48 输完。
答案: B = 10
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
答案: PaCO₂ = 23 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 17.5 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 心房率 = 300 bpm
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: ΔPR = 0.12 s
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
PR 最大的增幅出现在一组的第一个和第二个搏动之间;之后的增幅较小,这就是暂停之前 R–R 间期缩短的原因。
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