感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
According to Erikson, what is the main developmental task of older adulthood?
Which pair of details is best for confirming a patient's identity before giving a medicine?
护士接到电话口头医嘱。最安全的做法是什么?
手术当天早上,患者说手术部位是左膝,但同意书上写的是右膝。护士应怎么做?
On a pediatric unit, which child does the nurse assess first?
A patient in labor is receiving oxytocin, and the fetal monitor shows repeated late decelerations. What should the nurse do first?
Which group of features is typical of nephrotic syndrome?
一名急性消化道出血患者心率 120 次/分,血压 90/60 mmHg。呼救后,护理的首要任务是什么?
A patient with sickle cell disease takes hydroxyurea. Which laboratory test is monitored regularly for an adverse effect?
一名心力衰竭患者入院时 BNP 很高,在利尿治疗后正在下降。这最可能说明什么?
Which rule applies to intravenous potassium chloride?
A nurse gave a patient ten times the prescribed dose of hydromorphone. The patient is currently alert. What is the most appropriate sequence of actions?
What is the purpose of a mucolytic such as carbocisteine in chronic productive cough?
一名呼吸困难的患者使用 15 L/min 的非重复呼吸面罩,储氧袋在每次呼吸时都完全塌陷。护士应怎么做?
An older patient with a long-term catheter has bacteria in the urine but no symptoms. What is usually appropriate?
一名患者反复出现剧烈头痛、出汗、心悸和极高的血压。应考虑哪种疾病?
严重急性胰腺炎时可能出现哪种电解质问题?
After a high-voltage electrical injury, a patient's urine is dark red-brown. What does this suggest and what is the usual aim?
Which statement about the lactational amenorrhoea method (LAM) is correct?
A woman at 20 weeks presents with painless cervical dilation and bulging membranes, without contractions. She lost a previous pregnancy in the same way. What is the likely diagnosis?
A 12-year-old with type 1 diabetes will play a long football match. What should the nurse advise?
Newborn pulse oximetry screening shows 97% in the right hand and 91% in the foot. What does this mean?
A patient taking oxycodone for chronic pain has also been prescribed diazepam. What is the main safety concern?
A 10-year-old eats only a few foods and refuses others because he fears choking after a frightening episode. He is losing weight but has no concerns about body shape. Which diagnosis fits best?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 31.9849 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 75 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
50 mL 的 20%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
你需要用 25%(w/v)储备液配制 1000 mL 1%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求以 90 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
100 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 12 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 10 units/h。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 58 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 5 mcg/min。输液袋中含 25 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 11:30 开始用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 14:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 16 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 104 次/分,清醒,体温 36.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 59 mmHg (7.9 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 1 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.28,PaCO₂ 69 mmHg (9.2 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 31 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: B · Integrity versus despair
In late adulthood people review their lives. A sense of meaning brings integrity, while regret can lead to despair. Reminiscence can support this stage.
答案: C · Full name and date of birth, checked against the wristband
At least two personal identifiers, such as name, date of birth and hospital number, are checked with the patient and the wristband. Bed and room numbers change and are not identifiers.
答案: A · 写下来并向开医嘱者复述确认
写下医嘱并复述,可确认听到的内容无误。根据规定,口头医嘱仅限于紧急情况,之后须由开医嘱者签字。
答案: B · 暂停并告知外科医生,先确认部位
预防手术部位错误依赖于从多个来源确认正确的部位。出现不一致时,流程应暂停,直到外科医生与患者和记录核实了正确的部位,必要时更正同意书。
答案: D · A child with asthma who is now quiet with very little air movement
In asthma, very little air movement and a quiet child mean severe obstruction and possible respiratory failure. The other children are stable for now.
答案: B · Stop the oxytocin infusion
Late decelerations point to reduced blood flow through the placenta. Stopping oxytocin reduces contractions; the nurse then turns the patient onto her side, gives IV fluids as prescribed and informs the provider.
答案: C · Heavy proteinuria, low serum albumin and oedema
In nephrotic syndrome, damaged glomeruli leak protein, so albumin falls and fluid moves into tissues, causing oedema. Cholesterol is often raised too.
答案: B · 建立大口径静脉通路,准备补液或输血
心动过速和低血压提示大量失血。首先进行 ABCDE 评估、建立粗口径静脉通路、抽血(包括交叉配血)并进行复苏,随后行内镜检查。
答案: C · Complete blood count
Hydroxyurea increases fetal hemoglobin and reduces sickling crises, but it can suppress the bone marrow. The CBC, including neutrophils and platelets, is monitored regularly, and doses are adjusted if counts fall.核对依据: Sickle cell disease · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · 心脏的牵拉减轻,与病情改善相符
BNP 下降意味着心室负荷减轻,这与液体状态改善相符。应结合症状、体重和检查来解读。核对依据: Natriuretic Peptide Tests (BNP, NT-proBNP) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2023); Brain natriuretic peptide test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · It must be diluted and given as an infusion, never as an IV push
Concentrated potassium given as a bolus can cause fatal cardiac arrhythmias. It is always diluted and given at a controlled rate, usually with an infusion pump.
答案: B · Monitor closely, have naloxone ready, inform the prescriber and report
The patient may become sedated and develop respiratory depression later, so close monitoring and a ready antidote are needed. The prescriber is informed, the patient is told honestly, and the error is reported to improve the system.
答案: C · To make sputum thinner and easier to cough up
Mucolytics reduce sputum viscosity, which can make expectoration easier and may reduce exacerbations in some people with COPD. They are not bronchodilators or antibiotics. Cough suppressants are generally avoided in productive cough.
答案: B · 检查氧气供应和流量,使储氧袋保持充盈
储氧袋应在戴面罩之前充满,并在吸气时至少保持部分充盈。储氧袋完全塌陷意味着患者没有获得足够的氧气,可能在吸入室内空气。应检查供氧和流量,若患者仍缺氧则上报。
答案: D · No antibiotics, as long as there are no symptoms
Nearly all long-term catheters become colonised. Treating asymptomatic bacteriuria does not improve outcomes and promotes resistance. Antibiotics are reserved for symptomatic infection.
答案: D · 嗜铬细胞瘤
嗜铬细胞瘤是分泌儿茶酚胺的肿瘤,通常位于肾上腺髓质。引起阵发性高血压、头痛、出汗和心动过速。手术前,必须先开始 α 受体阻滞,然后才能使用任何 β 受体阻滞剂,因为单用 β 受体阻滞可引起高血压危象。
答案: D · 低钙血症
脂肪坏死释放脂肪酸,与钙结合(皂化),使血清钙降低。低钙血症是严重程度的标志,可引起手足抽搐和心律失常。而高钙血症则可能是胰腺炎的病因。
答案: C · Myoglobin from muscle damage; a higher urine output target
Electrical injury can cause extensive muscle breakdown, releasing myoglobin that can damage the kidneys. A higher urine output target is set, with fluids titrated and creatine kinase and kidney function monitored.
答案: B · It needs full breastfeeding, no periods and a baby under 6 months
LAM is effective only if the mother is fully or nearly fully breastfeeding day and night, her periods have not returned and the baby is under 6 months. Ovulation can occur before the first period.
答案: B · Cervical insufficiency
Painless second-trimester cervical dilation without contractions suggests cervical insufficiency. A cervical cerclage may be offered in a later pregnancy.
答案: C · Check glucose before playing and keep fast-acting carbohydrate at hand
Exercise increases glucose uptake by muscles, so hypoglycaemia can occur during or after sport, even overnight. Checking glucose, having extra carbohydrate and adjusting insulin as advised make sport safe and beneficial.
答案: C · An abnormal screen that must be followed up promptly under the screening protocol
The right hand reflects pre-ductal blood and the foot post-ductal blood. A difference of more than 3%, or a reading below about 95% in both limbs, is an abnormal screen. Depending on the protocol this means a prompt repeat test or immediate medical review, with echocardiography if it persists, because it can signal critical congenital heart disease.
答案: C · Increased sedation and respiratory depression
Combining opioids with benzodiazepines greatly increases the risk of sedation, respiratory depression and death. Patients are monitored and taught to avoid alcohol and other sedatives.
答案: D · Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID)
ARFID involves avoiding or restricting food because of sensory features, lack of interest or fear of consequences such as choking, leading to weight loss or nutritional problems. Unlike anorexia, there is no disturbance in body image.
答案: x = 32 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 1.8 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: m = 10000 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: W = 960 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 90 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: D = 80 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 25 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 3 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: B = 625 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 625 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: B = 16
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 25.9 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 慢性基础上的急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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