感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
How should the opening of a stoma bag be cut?
In an emergency a doctor gives a verbal order for a medicine. What should the nurse do?
A newly hired nurse had BCG vaccine as a child. Which TB screening test is usually preferred?
A patient receiving chemotherapy has an absolute neutrophil count of 400/mm3 (0.4 × 109/L) and a new temperature of 38.3 °C (100.9 °F). What should the nurse do?
After a hip replacement, a patient has sudden severe hip pain, and the operated leg looks shorter and turned. What should the nurse suspect?
The charge nurse overhears four instructions from an RN to a nursing assistant. Which one needs to be corrected?
A patient on the ward has shingles with open blisters. Which people are most at risk from contact?
A patient took a large paracetamol (acetaminophen) overdose six hours ago and says they feel well. Why is treatment still urgent?
A patient has weight loss, tremor and heat intolerance. Which thyroid test pattern fits Graves disease?
A patient taking isoniazid for latent TB reports nausea, loss of appetite and dark urine. The ALT is five times the upper limit of normal. What is the best action?
Digoxin 0.25 mg is ordered. The tablets available are 0.125 mg. How many tablets should be given?
A patient taking a GLP-1 receptor agonist such as semaglutide has severe, constant upper abdominal pain spreading to the back, with vomiting. What should the nurse suspect?
Why is intravenous furosemide given slowly rather than as a rapid push of a large dose?
A patient with severe chronic kidney disease needs therapeutic anticoagulation for a DVT. Why might unfractionated heparin be chosen instead of a low-molecular-weight heparin?
一名服用卡比马唑治疗甲状腺功能亢进的患者主诉咽痛和发热。护士应怎么做?
Two days after surgery, an 80-year-old woman is quiet, sleepy, slow to answer and eating little. Her daughter says she is "not herself". What should the nurse suspect?
Which advice helps a person with diabetes prevent foot ulcers?
A patient with three fractured ribs is taking shallow breaths because of pain. Why is effective analgesia a priority?
Which antihypertensive is commonly used in pregnancy but should be avoided in a woman with asthma?
A newborn is pale, has a heart rate of 170/min and weak pulses after a difficult vacuum birth. The scalp is boggy and swelling across the sutures is increasing. What should the nurse suspect?
A baby with developmental dysplasia of the hip has a Pavlik harness. Which teaching is correct?
一名肾病综合征患儿正在使用大剂量皮质类固醇。对家属来说,哪项指导最重要?
A patient who is detained under mental health legislation does not return from escorted leave. What should the nurse do?
A patient taking venlafaxine has started a second serotonergic medicine. She is restless, sweating, has a fast pulse and twitching muscles. What should the nurse do first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 153 cm。按 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以英寸表示的身高h。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 3 fl oz / 果汁, 2 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 3 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 12 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 12.5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 100 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 360 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一袋液体在 100 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 8 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份输液含普通胰岛素 100 单位,容量 100 mL。医嘱为 0.1 units/kg/h,患者体重 57 kg。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 35 mL/h 输注。患者体重 109 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 15:00 时已输入 300 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 轻度受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 完全不能活动; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 6 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 28% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 67 mmHg (8.9 kPa),PaCO₂ 38 mmHg (5.1 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: D · To fit closely around the stoma without pressing on it
The opening should fit snugly so stoma output does not reach the skin, but not so tight that it damages the stoma. Stomas shrink in the weeks after surgery, so the size is re-measured.
答案: C · Write it down, read it back and make sure it is signed later as per policy
Verbal orders are used only where local policy allows, such as emergencies. Reading back the drug, dose and route confirms the order, and it is documented and signed as soon as possible.
答案: C · An interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) blood test
BCG vaccine can cause a false-positive tuberculin skin test. IGRA blood tests are not affected by BCG, so they are preferred for people who have had the vaccine.
答案: C · Report it at once, because fever with severe neutropenia is an emergency
Febrile neutropenia can progress to sepsis quickly. The nurse reports it immediately so cultures can be taken and antibiotics started without delay.
答案: C · Dislocation of the new hip
Sudden pain with shortening and rotation of the leg suggests prosthetic hip dislocation. The nurse keeps the leg still, checks circulation and informs the surgeon.
答案: B · “Check his glucose and give the insulin according to the sliding scale.”
Giving insulin is medication administration and needs a licensed nurse. Measuring glucose, hygiene and supervised walking are suitable tasks with clear reporting instructions.
答案: D · Pregnant women and immunocompromised people who have not had chickenpox
Someone who has never had chickenpox can catch chickenpox from contact with shingles blisters. Non-immune pregnant and immunocompromised people are at particular risk, so lesions are covered and precautions followed.
答案: C · Liver damage develops later, and the antidote works best when given early
Paracetamol overdose may cause few early symptoms, but liver failure can develop over days. Acetylcysteine is most effective when started early, guided by timed paracetamol levels.
答案: A · Low TSH with a high free T4
In Graves disease, antibodies stimulate the thyroid to make too much hormone. The high free T4 suppresses TSH from the pituitary through negative feedback, so TSH is low. A high TSH with a low T4 fits primary hypothyroidism.核对依据: TSH test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Thyroxine (T4) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Graves disease · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · Hold the isoniazid and report the findings to the prescriber at once
Isoniazid can cause hepatitis, which may be severe. Symptoms such as nausea, loss of appetite and dark urine with a markedly raised ALT mean the drug should be held and the prescriber informed. Patients are taught to avoid alcohol and report these symptoms early.
答案: D · 2 tablets
0.25 mg ÷ 0.125 mg = 2 tablets. Doses that need more than a few tablets or unusual fractions should be double-checked.
答案: A · Acute pancreatitis; the drug is stopped and urgent assessment arranged
Mild nausea is common with GLP-1 agonists, but severe persistent abdominal pain radiating to the back suggests pancreatitis. The drug is stopped and the patient needs urgent assessment, including serum lipase or amylase.
答案: B · Rapid high doses can damage hearing
High plasma levels of loop diuretics can cause tinnitus and hearing loss (ototoxicity), especially with fast injection, renal impairment or other ototoxic drugs such as aminoglycosides. Large IV doses are therefore given slowly.
答案: D · LMWH is cleared by the kidneys and can accumulate
Low-molecular-weight heparins are mainly renally excreted, so they accumulate in severe renal impairment and increase bleeding risk. Unfractionated heparin is cleared mainly by other routes, has a short half-life and can be monitored with aPTT and reversed with protamine.
答案: B · 安排紧急全血细胞计数,排查粒细胞缺乏症
硫脲类药物(卡比马唑、甲巯咪唑、丙硫氧嘧啶)可引起粒细胞缺乏症,这是一种罕见但危及生命的中性粒细胞下降。应教导患者立即报告咽痛、发热或口腔溃疡,并紧急检查血常规;如果中性粒细胞偏低则停药。
答案: C · Hypoactive delirium
Hypoactive delirium presents with drowsiness, withdrawal and slowness rather than agitation, so it is often missed. It has a worse prognosis than the hyperactive form. A family report of a sudden change is important, and a screening tool such as the 4AT or the CAM (Confusion Assessment Method) can be used.
答案: C · Check the feet every day and never walk barefoot
Peripheral neuropathy and poor circulation mean injuries can go unnoticed. Daily inspection, well-fitting footwear, checking water temperature and regular podiatry help prevent ulcers.
答案: A · Shallow breathing can lead to atelectasis and pneumonia
Uncontrolled chest wall pain prevents deep breaths and coughing, leading to atelectasis, sputum retention and pneumonia, particularly in older adults. Multimodal analgesia, sometimes with regional blocks, and physiotherapy are used.
答案: A · Labetalol
Labetalol is a beta and alpha blocker and can cause bronchospasm, so it is avoided in asthma. Nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, is often used instead.
答案: B · Subgaleal haemorrhage
A subgaleal haemorrhage is bleeding under the scalp aponeurosis. It crosses suture lines, can grow rapidly and can cause hypovolaemic shock. It is an emergency, unlike caput or cephalhaematoma.
答案: B · Keep it on as instructed, do not adjust the straps and check the skin daily
The Pavlik harness holds the hips flexed and abducted so the joint can develop normally. It is usually worn full-time as directed; only the clinic adjusts the straps. Skin is checked daily, and lotions and powders are avoided.
答案: A · 及时报告发热或感染征象
使用类固醇的肾病综合征患儿易发生腹膜炎和蜂窝织炎等严重感染。类固醇必须逐渐减量,不能突然停用,大剂量治疗期间应推迟接种活疫苗。
答案: A · Start the missing patient procedure at once, informing the team and, if required, the police
A detained patient who is absent without leave may be a risk to themselves or others. Missing patient procedures are started immediately, including a risk assessment and informing the responsible clinician and relevant authorities.
答案: C · Hold the serotonergic medicines and inform the prescriber urgently
These signs suggest serotonin syndrome. The first steps are to stop the serotonergic drugs and get urgent medical review; supportive care and monitoring follow, and severe cases need intensive care.
答案: h = 60.2 in
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 845 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: V = 7.5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 90 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: D = 32 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: R = 5.7 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5.4 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: I = 1700 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 17:00 输完。
答案: B = 13
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 低风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: PaCO₂ = 17 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: A–a 梯度 = 85.14 mmHg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: 窦性心律伴窦性停搏
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。 窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
答案: P 波
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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