感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which stool sample is suitable for Clostridioides difficile testing?
A recently discharged patient sends the nurse a friend request on social media. What is the most appropriate response?
护士接到电话口头医嘱。最安全的做法是什么?
A nurse has a needlestick from a patient known to have hepatitis C. Which statement about management is correct?
A nurse takes a telephone order from a provider. What must the nurse do?
An older adult with type 2 diabetes is confused and very dehydrated. The glucose is 900 mg/dL (50 mmol/L), and blood and urine show no significant ketones. What is the most likely problem?
给予 β 受体阻滞剂之前,最重要的是检查哪项观察指标?
Why can sepsis be missed in older adults?
A patient with a potassium of 2.8 mEq/L has potassium chloride prescribed IV. Which statement about giving it is correct?
A patient has a continuous heparin infusion for a pulmonary embolism. A new nurse plans to adjust the infusion using today's INR of 1.1. What should the experienced nurse explain?
A 19-year-old starts an SSRI for depression. Which is most important for the nurse to monitor during the first weeks?
A baby born to a mother on methadone becomes irritable on day 2, with a high-pitched cry, tremors, sneezing and poor feeding. What is the most likely cause?
What is the purpose of cardiac resynchronisation therapy (a biventricular pacemaker)?
A patient taking warfarin for AF falls and hits their head. An hour later they are drowsy and have vomited. What is the priority?
甲状腺切除术后,为什么常在床边备有拆线或拆夹器?
一名使用呼吸机的患者有创伤性脑损伤。除非即将发生脑疝,通常的 PaCO₂ 目标是什么?
Why are accurate fluid balance charts kept after major surgery?
哪条安全规则适用于长春新碱?
Two days after a caesarean, a woman feels bloated with gas pains. Which advice is most helpful?
A woman is 10 cm dilated with an urge to push. The fetal head is at station 0 and the tracing is normal. Which approach is supported by current practice?
哪项是再次接种同一种疫苗的真正禁忌证?
一名 6 岁的镰状细胞病患儿体温 39.0 °C。为什么要作为紧急情况处理?
A patient says, "The doctor says I'm getting better, but I don't think anyone here really knows me." Which nurse response is most therapeutic?
A patient in alcohol withdrawal had a CIWA-Ar score of 8 four hours ago. It is now 22, and he is sweating heavily and very anxious. What should the nurse do?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 96.7 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血糖结果为 438 mg/dL。按葡萄糖 1 mmol/L = 18 mg/dL,求以 mmol/L 表示的c。取到一位小数。
一名体重 30 kg 的儿童按 3 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 25 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方剂量为 0.39 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 1000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 20 滴/mL 的输液器在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
50 mg 药物溶于 500 mL 的输液以 15 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋中含肝素 25 000 单位,容量 250 mL。医嘱为 15 units/kg/h,患者体重 71 kg。输液泵速率 R 应设为多少 mL/h? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名体重 91 kg 的患者的医嘱为nitroglycerin 50 mcg/min。输液袋中含 50 mg,容量 250 mL。求泵速 R,以 mL/h 计。 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 100 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 125 mL/h 输注。到 10:30 时已输入 250 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 非常潮湿; 活动: 经常步行; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:全身皮肤粉红,心率 60 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,活动活跃,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.42,PaCO₂ 48 mmHg (6.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 30 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 32 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。
答案: A · A loose stool that takes the shape of the container
Only diarrhoeal stool (types 5–7 on the Bristol Stool Chart) is tested for C. difficile. The sample is collected in a clean pot without urine contamination.
答案: D · Decline it, to keep a professional boundary
Nursing codes advise keeping clear professional boundaries, and social media contact with patients can blur them. The nurse politely declines and does not share patient information online.
答案: A · 写下来并向开医嘱者复述确认
写下医嘱并复述,可确认听到的内容无误。根据规定,口头医嘱仅限于紧急情况,之后须由开医嘱者签字。
答案: C · There is no preventive drug, so baseline and follow-up testing are done to detect infection early
There is no vaccine or post-exposure prophylaxis for hepatitis C. The exposure is reported, baseline tests are taken and follow-up testing identifies infection early, because effective treatment is available.
答案: B · Write the order down and read it back to the provider to confirm it
For telephone and verbal orders, the nurse writes down the full order and reads it back so the provider can confirm it. This “read-back” prevents errors from mishearing.
答案: D · Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state occurs mainly in type 2 diabetes, with extreme glucose, severe dehydration and little or no ketosis. Treatment starts with IV fluids, as in DKA.
答案: C · 心率和血压
β 受体阻滞剂会降低心率和血压,因此出现心动过缓或低血压时,可能需要暂停给药并通知开药者。
答案: B · They may have no fever and present with confusion, falls or reduced mobility
Older people may have a normal or low temperature and present with delirium, falls or general decline. Early warning scores and a high index of suspicion are important.
答案: D · It is always diluted and given by infusion pump, never as an IV push
Concentrated potassium chloride given as an IV push can cause fatal cardiac arrest, so it is never pushed. It is diluted, mixed well and given by infusion pump at a rate set by protocol, often with cardiac monitoring at higher rates.
答案: B · Heparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
Unfractionated heparin infusions are adjusted using the aPTT or anti-factor Xa level according to protocol. The INR monitors warfarin and is little affected by heparin at usual doses. Using the wrong test can cause under- or over-anticoagulation.核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · New or worsening suicidal thoughts or agitation
Antidepressants can increase suicidal thinking in young people, especially early in treatment or after dose changes. Close follow-up and a clear plan for reporting such thoughts are essential.
答案: B · Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome
After birth the baby no longer receives opioid from the mother and develops withdrawal. Assessment uses a scoring tool, with non-drug care first and opioid treatment if signs are severe.
答案: C · To make both ventricles contract together and more efficiently
In heart failure with a wide QRS (often left bundle branch block), the ventricles contract out of step. Pacing both ventricles restores coordinated contraction, improving symptoms and survival. Many devices also include a defibrillator.
答案: A · Urgent escalation for CT of the head and anticoagulant reversal
Head injury in an anticoagulated patient with drowsiness or vomiting suggests intracranial haemorrhage. Urgent CT, neurological observations, an INR and rapid reversal (for warfarin, prothrombin complex concentrate and IV vitamin K) are needed.
答案: D · 颈部血肿可压迫气道,可能需要松解
甲状腺手术后颈部血肿可迅速压迫气道。许多病房在床边备有拆夹器或拆线器及气道设备,以便在紧急情况下打开伤口。护士应观察有无肿胀、喘鸣和呼吸困难。
答案: C · 正常的 PaCO₂(正常碳酸血症)
高 CO₂ 使脑血管扩张并升高颅内压,而过度通气使其收缩,可引起脑缺血。通常以正常碳酸血症(约 4.7–5.3 kPa,即 35–40 mmHg)为目标;仅在出现即将脑疝的征象时短暂过度通气,作为确定性治疗前的过渡。
答案: C · To detect dehydration, fluid overload or kidney problems early
Fluid balance charts record IV and oral intake against urine, drains, vomit and NG losses. Trends help detect hypovolaemia, overload and acute kidney injury.
答案: C · 绝不能鞘内给药;以小袋装供静脉专用
鞘内注射长春新碱几乎总是致命的。为防止给药途径错误,它被稀释在小袋中供静脉使用,标注“仅供静脉使用,其他途径给药可致命”,并与鞘内药物分开存放。
答案: A · Walk around regularly
Early and regular walking stimulates peristalsis and helps relieve gas. Carbonated drinks and straws introduce more air. Walking also reduces the risk of venous thromboembolism.
答案: B · Let her push with her urge in a position she prefers
Spontaneous pushing with the urge, short breath holds and upright or side-lying positions are encouraged. Long, forced Valsalva pushing in the supine position can reduce placental blood flow.
答案: A · 上一剂该疫苗后发生过敏性休克
对上一剂疫苗或疫苗成分的严重过敏反应是禁忌证。局部发红和轻度发热是常见的预期反应。
答案: D · 镰状细胞病患儿脾功能减退,发生严重细菌感染的风险很高
反复梗死使脾脏在儿童早期受损(功能性无脾),因此有荚膜的细菌可导致暴发性脓毒症。发热需要紧急评估,通常需要使用抗生素。
答案: A · "You feel that people here don't really know you?"
Reflecting the patient's concern invites them to explore it. Defending the doctor, reassuring falsely or asking "why" all close the conversation down.
答案: C · Give the prescribed symptom-triggered benzodiazepine, increase monitoring and inform the prescriber
A rising CIWA-Ar score shows worsening withdrawal. Symptom-triggered benzodiazepine treatment, closer observation and medical review help prevent seizures and delirium tremens.
答案: T = 35.9 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 24.3 mmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.39 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: R = 83 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:83 滴/分。
答案: D = 25 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: R = 10.7 mL/h
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: R = 15 mL/h
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
医嘱是针对患者整体的每分钟剂量,所以不需要体重。
答案: U = 0.67 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 6 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 6 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 16:30 输完。
答案: B = 15
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 令人放心
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
答案: 完全代偿
解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。
临床上还应检查预期代偿:代谢性碱中毒时 PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 = 40–44 mmHg,所以实测 48 mmHg 提示合并呼吸性酸中毒(混合性紊乱)。上面的答案是按 ROME 法的考试分类。
答案: PaCO₂ = 43.4 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 心房扑动,3:1 传导
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 尖端扭转型室性心动过速
更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。
尖端扭转型室性心动过速是与 QT 间期延长相关的多形性 VT。这里只是识别练习。
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