感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 40 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why is hand hygiene still needed after removing gloves?
A patient taking furosemide has a serum potassium of 3.0 mmol/L (3.0 mEq/L). Why is this important?
腕部约束带应松紧到什么程度?
A patient was harmed by a medication error and asks the nurse what happened. Which approach is best?
A patient has taken prednisone (prednisolone in many countries) for several months. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
After a vaginal birth, the uterus is firm and central, but bright red blood keeps trickling steadily. What should the nurse suspect?
一名患者的癫痫发作已持续超过五分钟。这意味着什么?
A patient has a single hot, swollen, very painful knee and a fever. Why is urgent joint aspiration important?
A patient with type 2 diabetes has a target HbA1c below 7% (53 mmol/mol). Today's result is 7.8% (62 mmol/mol). What is the best interpretation?
A patient has a hematocrit of 60% and a raised red cell mass. Which result suggests polycythemia vera rather than secondary polycythemia from chronic hypoxia?
How should the nurse straighten the ear canal to give ear drops to a 2-year-old child?
A patient who used cocaine has chest pain, agitation, a high temperature, sweating, tachycardia and dilated pupils. Which drug class is commonly first-line for the agitation and sympathetic overactivity?
Why must anti-embolism stockings be measured and fitted correctly?
An 84-year-old with heart failure becomes breathless with new crackles and a rising blood pressure during a blood transfusion. What should the nurse suspect?
A patient on ciclosporin or tacrolimus asks about grapefruit juice. Which advice is correct?
在这些急性缺血性卒中患者中,哪一位最不可能适合静脉溶栓?
Why is the "whoosh" test no longer used to check nasogastric tube position?
A patient with a sacral pressure ulcer keeps sliding down the bed when the head is raised high. Which advice best reduces shear?
一名哺乳期母亲在产后第 2 天哺乳时出现产后痛(痉挛痛)。如何解释?
A woman has hyperthyroidism in pregnancy. Which finding in the fetus should be monitored?
Which defect classically causes a continuous "machinery" murmur?
A child is recovering from Kawasaki disease at home. Which finding is expected in the recovery phase?
A patient taking phenelzine, an MAOI, is being taught before discharge. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient who used methamphetamine heavily for weeks stopped 2 days ago. He sleeps most of the day, is very low and says life is pointless. What is the priority?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 104.8 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tbsp,每天两次,共 7 天。混悬液每瓶 100 mL。按1 tbsp = 15 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一名体重 20 kg 的儿童按 3 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 20 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 7400 单位的药物,药液规格为 10000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 90 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 1000 mg,以 10 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一项练习规程要求为体重 110 kg 的患者推注肝素 80 units/kg。药瓶规格为 5 000 units/mL。应抽取多少体积 V? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份含dobutamine 250 mg、容量 250 mL 的输液以 34 mL/h 输注。患者体重 110 kg。患者接受的剂量 D 是多少 mcg/kg/min? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 82 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 50 mL/h 输注。到 07:30 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 128 kg,身高 172 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
练习数值:Na⁺ 148 mmol/L,葡萄糖 30.4 mmol/L,尿素 15.5 mmol/L。计算血清渗透压 Osm = 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,取最接近的整数。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 37 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
答案: A · Gloves can have tiny holes and hands can be contaminated during removal
Gloves reduce, but do not remove, the risk of hand contamination. Hand hygiene is performed after glove removal every time.
答案: C · Loop diuretics cause potassium loss, and low levels can cause arrhythmias
Furosemide increases potassium loss in the urine. Hypokalaemia causes muscle weakness and cardiac arrhythmias, so the result is reported and replacement considered.
答案: C · 松紧度以约束带与皮肤之间能插入两根手指为宜
能在约束带下插入两根手指,既能保证固定,又不会阻断血液循环或损伤皮肤。应经常检查循环、感觉和皮肤。
答案: D · Be honest that an error occurred and involve the provider and team in disclosure per policy
Open, honest disclosure of errors is an ethical duty and part of a safety culture. The nurse follows policy, which usually involves the provider and risk team, and does not hide or blame.
答案: D · “I will stop the tablets as soon as I feel better.”
Stopping long-term corticosteroids suddenly can cause adrenal crisis, so they are tapered as prescribed. Taking them with food, telling other prescribers and reporting infection are correct.
答案: D · A tear in the birth canal or cervix
Continuous bright red bleeding with a firm uterus suggests a laceration of the cervix, vagina or perineum. The nurse reports it so it can be found and repaired.
答案: D · 应按癫痫持续状态处理并给予急救药物
发作持续五分钟或更长,或反复发作而意识未恢复,应按癫痫持续状态处理。防止受伤,给氧,并遵医嘱给予急救抗惊厥药。
答案: C · To rule out septic arthritis, which can rapidly destroy the joint
Septic arthritis can destroy cartilage within days. Aspiration allows microscopy and culture, and helps distinguish infection from crystal arthritis such as gout.
答案: A · Average glucose over the past months has been above the target
An HbA1c of 7.8% shows that average glucose has been above the individual target over about 2–3 months. The nurse explores diet, activity, medication use and barriers, and the treatment plan may be adjusted.核对依据: Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · A low erythropoietin level
In polycythemia vera, a marrow mutation (usually JAK2) drives red cell production, so erythropoietin is low. In secondary polycythemia from hypoxia (COPD, high altitude, smoking), erythropoietin is high. Often white cells and platelets are also raised in polycythemia vera.核对依据: Erythropoietin test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Polycythemia vera · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · Pull the pinna down and back
In children under about 3 years, the pinna is pulled down and back; in adults it is pulled up and back. The child then lies with the treated ear up for a few minutes.
答案: D · Benzodiazepines
Cocaine causes a sympathomimetic toxidrome. Benzodiazepines reduce agitation, tachycardia, hypertension and hyperthermia, while cooling and cardiac monitoring are also given.
答案: C · Poorly fitting stockings can cause pressure damage
Stockings that are the wrong size or that roll down can act like a tourniquet and cause skin and pressure damage. They are measured to the leg, checked daily, and avoided in significant peripheral arterial disease, severe neuropathy or leg skin damage.
答案: D · Transfusion-associated circulatory overload
Transfusion-associated circulatory overload causes breathlessness, crackles, raised BP and JVP during or soon after transfusion, especially in older people and those with heart or kidney disease. The transfusion is stopped or slowed, the patient sat up and given oxygen, and diuretics may be prescribed. Slow rates and single units with reassessment reduce the risk.
答案: A · Avoid it, because it can raise the drug levels
Grapefruit inhibits the CYP3A4 enzyme and can raise ciclosporin and tacrolimus levels, leading to toxicity. Patients are advised to avoid it, and to check before starting any new medicine or supplement.
答案: A · 五天前做过腹部大手术的患者
近期大手术(许多指南中为约 14 天内)会大大增加出血风险,是溶栓的禁忌证。发病在 4.5 小时内、血压低于 185/110 mmHg 和 CT 无出血,都是允许溶栓的条件。
答案: C · Air can be heard even when the tube is in the lung
Auscultation of injected air cannot distinguish the stomach from the lungs or oesophagus, and misplaced tubes have caused deaths. pH testing of aspirate or X-ray is used instead.
答案: C · Keep the head of the bed at or below 30° if possible; use slide sheets
A high head position makes patients slide, causing shear on the sacrum. A lower head position when clinically possible, knee break or foot support, and slide sheets for moving reduce shear and friction.
答案: A · 哺乳时释放的缩宫素使子宫收缩
吸吮释放缩宫素,引起乳汁排出和子宫收缩。产后痛是正常的,经产妇常常更明显。排空膀胱和使用简单的镇痛药有帮助。
答案: D · Fetal tachycardia and poor growth
In Graves' disease, maternal antibodies can cross the placenta and cause fetal hyperthyroidism, with tachycardia, goitre and growth restriction. Antithyroid drugs also cross the placenta, so the fetus is monitored.
答案: D · Patent ductus arteriosus
In a patent ductus arteriosus, blood flows from the aorta to the pulmonary artery throughout the cardiac cycle because aortic pressure is always higher. This produces a continuous, machinery-like murmur.
答案: B · Peeling skin on the fingers and toes
Peeling (desquamation) of the skin of the fingers and toes is typical in the subacute phase of Kawasaki disease. Chest pain could signal a coronary problem, and a new fever needs medical review.
答案: A · "I can take any cold and flu remedy from the pharmacy."
Decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are sympathomimetics and can cause a hypertensive crisis with MAOIs. Patients should check any new medicine, including over-the-counter remedies, with a pharmacist or prescriber.
答案: C · Assess his suicide risk
Stimulant withdrawal can cause profound depression, fatigue, hypersomnia and suicidal thoughts. Suicide risk assessment and close observation are the priorities.
答案: T = 40.4 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 2
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.74 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 30 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 200 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: V = 1.8 mL
肝素和胰岛素输注:浓度 = 袋中单位数/袋容量 (units/mL)。泵速 (mL/h) = 每小时单位数/浓度,每小时单位数 = mL/h × 浓度。按体重给药时,先求 units/h = units/kg/h × 体重。推注体积 = 所需单位数/药瓶规格。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: D = 5.2 mcg/kg/min
滴定输注:先求以 mcg/mL 计的浓度(mg × 1000/mL)。按体重给药时,mcg/min = mcg/kg/min × 体重。然后 mL/h = mcg/min × 60/浓度。反推时,mcg/kg/min = mL/h × 浓度/(60 × 体重)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: U = 0.88 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 9 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 9 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 16:30 输完。
答案: MFS = 35
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
答案: Osm = 342 mOsm/kg
衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。
答案: PaCO₂ = 46.9 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 窦性心动过速
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: 节律
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
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